MODERN  FRUIT 
MARKETING 


A  Complete  Treatise  Covering 
Harvesting,  Packing,  Storing, 
Transporting  and  Selling  of  Fruit 


BY 

BLISS  S.  BROWN 

Professor  of  Horticulture  in  University  of  Maine 


ILLUSTRATED 


if,  * 

ftt:    • 

.  . 


NEW 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 
1916 


COPYRIGHT,  1916,  BY 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


[Printed  ii}  U.  S. 


INTRODUCTION 

AGRICULTURE  is  the  Science,  the  Art  and  the  Technique 
of  supplying  human  wants  from  the  products  of  the  soil. 
This  does  not  exactly  correspond  with  the  old  definition, 
but  is  a  readjustment  to  meet  the  needs  of  its  modern 
application.  The  Latin  word  "agri,"  meaning  field, 
and  "horti,"  garden,  have  long  since  outgrown  their  use- 
fulness as  a  definition  for  present-day  Agriculture  or 
Horticulture.  The  tendency  now  is  to  increase  the  scope 
of  the  word  Agriculture  to  include  the  Art,  the  Science, 
and  the  Technique  of  everything  pertaining  to  farm 
products,  and  to  delimit  the  meaning  of  Horticulture 
within  narrower  and  narrower  bounds. 

Formerly,  Agriculture  was  considered  to  be  the  grow- 
ing of  crops.  When  this  was  accomplished,  the  farmer's 
results  were  turned  over  to  another  set  of  people  to  dis- 
pose of  as  they  saw  fit.  Later,  along  with  production, 
was  considered  the  problems  of  distribution,  and  Agri- 
culture expanded  to  include  this  work.  Now,  the  mar- 
keting of  farm  products  is  everywhere  considered  as  a 
legitimate  part  of  Agriculture. 

The  trend  of  the  present  leaders  in  the  profession  is 
to  go  one  step  farther  and  include  in  modern  Agricul- 


355202 


VI 


INTRODUCTION 


ture  the  converting  of  the  raw  products  of  the  farm 
into  manufactured  or  finished  articles,  which  supply 
human  wants  in  the  nature  of  Nourishment,  Comforts 
or  Pleasure.  This  is  as  it  should  be,  for  there  is  no 
plausible  reason  why  the  manufacture  of  flour  from 
wheat,  or  the  making  of  bread  from  flour  is  not  as  im- 
portant to  agriculture  as  the  chemistry  or  histology  of 
the  wheat  plant  itself.  It  is  just  as  important  to  know 
how  to  make  starch  from  corn,  or  cloth  from  cotton  fiber, 
as  it  is  to  grow  the  plants  themselves. 

In  accordance  with  this  modern  interpretation  of  Agri- 
culture, the  following  classification  is  inserted  as  a  pre- 
lude to  a  more  extended  discussion  of  the  topic. 


GENERAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  AGRICULTURE 


ZOOTECHNY 

(Animal  Technology) 


AGROTECHNY 

(Plant    Technology) 


'Agronomy. 


•  Breeding 
Management 
Uses,  etc. 

Cereals 

Grasses 

Legumes 

Tubers 

Roots 

Corn 

.Cotton,  etc. 


I"  Tree  Fruits. 

Horticulture 1  Small  Fruits 

[  Herb-like  Fruits 

Olericulture Vegetables 

Floriculture Flowers 

Viticulture Grapes 

Landscape  Architecture. Land  Decoration 


INTRODUCTION 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  HORTICULTURE 


Vll 


HORTICULTURE  J 


'   HERB-LIKE    FR 

UITS  •< 

[Banana 
Pineapple 
Cherimoyer 
Pawpaw 

( 

'Pdmaceous  - 

Apples 
Pears 

Quinces 

[Peaches 

Plums 

Drupaceous  « 

Apricots 
Cherries 

Almonds 

Nectarines 

r 

Oranges 

Lemons 

Limes 

Citrsccous             .  •  > 

Tangerines 

Citrons 

Pomelos 

Kumquats 

Shaddocks 

TREE    FRUITS  .  .^ 

^TorncGOUS 

Figs 
Mulberries 

1 

Walnuts 

Pecans 

Chestnuts 

idicitJCGOus    "*\ 

Hickories 
Butttrnuts 

Pistachios 

Hazlenuts 

Brazilnuts 

Ebenaceous  Persimmons 

Oleaceous  Olives 

Lauraceous               \vocadroes 

(  Dates 

Palmaceous  

Cocoa  Xuts 

I  Sago 

Rubaceous  

'  Blackberry 
Raspberry 
Dewberry 

SMALL  FRUITS.  < 

Ribaceous        ....   * 

Gooseberry 
Currants 

. 

'Blueberries 

Cranberries 
^Billberries 

.Fraeaceous.  .       .  .  Strawberries 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The  author  is  indebted  to  the  following  people  who  have  fur- 
nished the  illustrations  referred  to  by  the  figures  opposite  their 
names : 

Page 

A.  G.  Turney,  New  Brunswick,  Canada 130 

C.  J.  Sinsel,  Boise,  Idaho      1 

Experiment  Station,  Univ.  of  Me.,  Orono.  .  .     94,  95,  96, 

97,98,99,  100,  101 

Extension  Department,  Univ.  of  Me.,  Orono 55 

Harrison's  Nurseries,  Berlin,  Md 76,  90 

Horticultural  Department,  Univ.  of  Me.,  Orno. . .   44,  45, 

46,  47,  48,  49,  50,  54,  58,  59,  66,  67,  70,  71 

Madison  Cooper  Co.,  Calcium,  N.  Y 79,  87,  91,  92 

New  England  Homestead,  Springfield,  Mass 107 

Price  Fruit  Sizer  Co.,  North  Yakima,  Wash 24 

Prof.  J.  E.  Coit,  Berkeley,  Cal 19 

Quincy  Cold  Storage  and  Market  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.     . .  80 

San  Jose  Chamber  of  Commerce,  San  Jose,  Cal.     . .     3,  23 

Shotwell  &  Wilmeroth  Co.,  Wenatchee,  Wash 75 

Spokane  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Spokane,  Wash.  125, 129,  131 

The  Cutler  Fruit  Grading  Co.,  Hood  River,  Ore 27 

The  Hinde  Dauch  Paper  Co.,  Sandusky,  Ohio 103 

The  Remington  Machine  Co.,  Wilmington,  Del 85 

Union  Fibre  Co.,  Winona,  Minn 83,  86 

United  Fruit  Auction  Co.,  of  Detroit,  Detroit,  Mich.  110,  111 
Western  Fruit  Grading  and  Mfg.  Co.,  Grand  Junction, 

Col 25,  26 

W.  P.  Stark  Nursery  Co.,  Stark  City,  Mo.  . .  2,  18,  105,  108 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  I 

PAGE 

FRUIT  HARVESTING  OPERATIONS 1 

Picking  operations — Time  to  pick  various  fruits — 
Stems  on  or  off — Succession  of  pickings — Receptacles 
used — Ladders — Disposition  of  the  fruit — Moving  the 
fruit — Managing  pickers. 

Chapter  II 
PREPARING  THE  FRUIT  FOR  MARKET 22 

The  packing  house — For  the  individual — Central  pack- 
ing houses — Grades  of  fruit — Laws  of  the  various 
states — Assorting  fruit  into  grades — Equipment  nec- 
essary— Grading  tables — Mechanical  fruit  graders  or 
sizers. 

Chapter  III 
FRUIT  PACKAGES 40 

Packages  versus  bulk — Gift  packages — Requirements 
of  fruit  packages — Kinds  of  fruit  packages — Standard 
sizes  of  packages — Various  legal  requirements — Fruit 
package  material — Methods  of  handling — Special 
packing  materials. 

Chapter  IV 
FRUIT  PACKING  OPERATIONS      57 

Packing  apples  in  barrels — Preparing  the  barrel — 
Facing — Filling  in — Racking  —  Follower  —  Tailing — • 
Heading — Xailing — Packing  apples  in  boxes — Terms 
used — Skill  required — Filling  the  box — Wrapping  the 
fruit — Requirements  of  good  pack — Nailing  devices — 
Rules  for  packing  by  organizations — Costs  compared 
with  barrel — Labeling  packages. 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS 

Chapter  V 

PAGE 

FRUIT  STORAGE       85 

Objects  of  storage — Eequirements  of  fruit  for  storage 
— Kinds  of  fruit  storages — Cellars — Dugouts — Local — 
Public — Control  of  temperature — Construction — Insu- 
lating materials — Methods  of  insulation — Mechanics 
of  cold  storage — (Ice — Brine)  system — Solutions  used 
— Ammonia  system — Compressor — Condenser — Expan- 
sion coils — Utilizing  the  cold — Brine  system — Direct 
expansion — Ventilating  storage  houses — Humidity  in 
storage  houses — Cost  of  storing  fruit — Advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  public  storages. 


Chapter  VI 
THE  EFFECTS  OF  STORAGE  ON  FRUIT 119 

Conditions  affecting  keeping  qualities — The  effects  of 
freezing  on  fruits — Fruit  scald — Shrinkage  in  storage 
— Decay  in  storage — Storage  effecting  chemical 
changes. 

Chapter  VII 
TRANSPORTATION  . .     134 

Freight  cars — Common — Ventilated — Heated — Kefrig- 
erator — Express  companies — Express  rates  versus 
freight  rates — Private  car  lines — Parcel  post — Pre- 
cooling  fruit — Shipping — Fast  freight — Icing  stations 
— Ocean  freight — Loading  cars — Capacity  of  cars. 


Chapter  VIII 
FRUIT  MARKETS 152 

Where  the  markets  are — Selling  at  home — Selling  in 
city  markets — Foreign  Markets — The  markets  con- 
trasted— Factors  influencing  the  markets — Supply — 
Demand — Price. 


CONTEXTS  xiii 

Chapter  IK 

PAGE 

SELLING  AGENCIES      167 

Commission  houses — Methods  of  doing  business — Ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages — Desirability  of  commis- 
sion houses — National  league  of  commission  mer- 
chants— Cooperative  selling — Cooperation  denned — 
Profit  sharing — Xon-profit  sharing — Organizing  ex- 
changes— Local — District — Central  —  Management  of 
exchanges  —  Incorporating  —  Officers  —  Directors — 
Powers  of  exchanges — Collecting  information — Dis- 
tributing information — Aiding  growers — Sub-depart- 
ments of  exchanges — Statistical — Legal — Field  Or- 
ganizations—  Advertising  —  Selling  —  Purchasing  de- 
tails of  exchange  management — Benefits  of  coopera- 
tion. 


Chapter  X 
SELLING  METHODS       203 

Special  salesmen — Track  sales — F.O.B.  sales — Con- 
signment— Shipments  with  sight  draft  and  bill  of 
lading  attached — Auctions — Special  retail  or  private 
markets — Other  agencies. 

Chapter  XI 
SPECLIL  FRUIT  ORGANIZATIONS 223 

Fruit  distributors — Fruit  jobbers — National  league  of 
commission  merchants — International  apple  shippers' 
association — Apple  advertisers  of  America — Govern- 
ment reports  and  statistics. 

Chapter  XII 
FRUIT  SHOWS      252 

Objects — How  held  or  managed — Exhibits — Premium 
list — Securing  premiums — Selecting  fruit  for  exhibi- 
tion— Arranging  exhibits — Advertising — Side  issues — 
Feature  exhibits — Judging  the  fruit — Score  card — 
Kules  in  judging. 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure  Page 

1  Picking  Apples  in  a  Large  Orchard  ..Frontispiece 

2  Harvesting  Peaches  in  Georgia 3 

3  A  "Drying  Floor"  for  Prunes,  Santa  Clara  Valley, 

Cal ..  G 

4  "Knocking  Almonds,"  Sacramento  Valley,  Cal.   . .  7 

5  Fruit  Picking  Receptacles 13 

6  A  Fruit  Picking  Bag 11 

7  Desirable  Fruit  Picking  Ladders       12 

8  A  Convertible  Step-Ladder       13 

9  A    Home-Made   Picking   Ladder   for   Low-Headed 

Trees       ,      14 

10  Type  of  Picking  Ladder  Used  in  the  Northwestern 

States      15 

11  Field  Fruit  Box  or  "Lug  Box" 16 

12  Convenient  Wagon  for  Moving  the  Fruit  from  the 

Orchard 16 

13  A  "Three  Decker"  Fruit  Wagon  for  Long  Hauls. .  17 

14  A    Combined    Orchard    and    Delivery    Wagon    for 

Small  Orchards 19 

15  A  Band  of  Apple  Pickers  in  Maine 20 

16  A  Packing-House  and  Storage  Cellar 23 

17  Floor  Plan  of  Packing  Room 24 

18  Delivering  Peaches  to  a  Private  Packing-House  in 

Georgia 25 

19  Central  Packing-Houses  for  Oranges  in  Southern 

California       26 

20  A  Corner  in  a  Packing-House 27 

21  Packing  and  Grading  Table       32 

22  Sizing  Board  for  Fruit  Grading       33 

23  Grading  Fruit  in  a  Western  Cannery     . .      , .      , ,  34 

xv 


xvi  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure  Page 

24  A  Mechanical  Fruit  Grader  that  Weighs  the  Fruit  35 

25  A  Mechanical  Grader  Having  a  Moveable  Webb   . .  36 

26  Grading  Fruit       37 

27  Machine  for  Grading  Fruit       38 

28  Gift  Fruit  Packages 41 

29  Standard  Orange  Box  and  Pineapple  Crate    .  .      . .  43 

30  Grape  Baskets,  20  Pound  and  8  Pound  Sizes. ...  44 

31  Fruit  Basket  Containers 45 

32  Types  of  Fruit  Packages  Made  from  Veneer. ...  48 

33  A"  Form  for  Setting  Up  Apple  Boxes      49 

34  Making  Apple  Boxes 49 

35  Standard  Apple  Box  Construction 50 

36  Tools  for  Barrel  Making 51 

37  Set  of  Truss  Hoops  Used  in  Barrel  Making  . .      . .  51 

38  Form  Used  in  Setting  Up  a  Barrel 52 

39  Windlass  and  Rope  Used  in  Barrel  Making  . .      . .  53 

40  Measuring  for  Size  of  Hoop 54 

41  Vise  with  Foot-Lever  Used  in  Nailing  Hoops       . .  54 

42  Placing  the  Quarter  Hoop  on  the  Barrel       . .      . .  55 

43  Heading  the  Barrel 55 

44  Nailing  in  the  Head  of  the  Barrel  Before  Packing  58 

45  Nailing  the  Quarter  Hoops       58 

46  A  Well-Faced  Barrel  of  Fruit 59 

47  Tools  for  Barrel  Packing 60 

48  A  Slack  Barrel  from  Insufficient  Racking       . .      . .  61 

49  A  Properly  Tailed  Barrel  of  Apples  and  Careless 

Work      62 

50  Two  Types  of  Barrel  Presses 63 

51  A  Lever  Barrel  Press 64 

52  Packing  Table  with  Boxes  in  Position 65 

53  Correct  Folds  in  Box  Liners      66 

54  Incorrect  Folds  in  Box  Liners 66 

54a  Box  Pack  Showing  the  Use  of  Layer  Boards. ...  67 

55  School  for  Instructing  Fruit  Packers 67 

56  Style  of  Fruit  Packs 68 

57  "Tier?  and  "Layer"  as  Used  in  Box  Packing  . .      . .  69 

58  Offset  Pack  and  Diagonal  Pack       69 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

Figure  Page 

59  End  Packs  as  Used  with  Apples       71 

60  Side  Packs  as  Used  in  the  West       72 

61  Wrapping  the  Apple,  First  Position       73 

62  Wrapping  the  Apple,  Second  Position 73 

63  Wrapping  the  Apple,  Third  Position 73 

64  Wrapping  the  Apple,  Fourth  Position 73 

65  Wrapping  the  Apple,  Process  Completed     . .      . .  74 

66  Box  Not  Properly  Wrapped 74 

67  Bulge  on  Boxed  Fruit       75 

68  Closed  Boxes  Showing  Bulge 75 

69  Boxed  Fruit  Showing  Good  Alignment 76 

70  Box  Showing  Bad  Alignment 76 

71  A  Home-Made  Box  Nailing  Press 77 

71a  Box  Press  Used  in  Canada       78 

716  Western  Box  Press ..  78 

72  Nail   Stripper       79 

73  Expert  Boxers   at  Work  in   a  Western   Paeking- 

House      80 

74  Lithographed  Labels  for  Boxes  and  Barrels  . .      . .  81 

75  A  Box  Labeling  Machine 82 

76  Boxing  Sweet  Cherries  in  California      83 

77  A  Small  Farm  Storage  Cellar,  or  "Dug-Out"       . .  88 

78  Hollow  Building  Tile  for  Storage  Houses     . .      . .  89 

79  Local  Cold  Storage  House 92 

80  A  Large  Public  Cold  Storage  Building 93 

81  Pressed  Cork  for  Insulating  Storages 95 

82  Mineral  Wool  for  Insulating  Storages 95 

83  Fibre  Felt  for  Insulating  Storages 95 

84  Cork  Board  for  Insulating  Storages       . .      ....  96 

85  Insulation  for  Cold  Storage  Rooms 98 

86  Applying  Insulating  Materials 99 

87  Plan  of  a  Small  Cold  Storage  Plant       102 

88  A  Sling  or  Whorl  Psychrometer       112 

89  A  Box  of  Good  Fruit 119 

90  Fruit  Stored  in  Bulk 120 

91  Fruit  Stored  in  Open  Boxes 122 

92  Barrelled  Apples  in  Storage     . .      .. .. 124 


xviii  LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure  Page 

93  A  Convenient  Rack  for  Storing  Small  Quantities 

of  Fruit         126 

94  Apple  Scab  on  Stored  Fruit 128 

95  Brown  Rot 129 

96  Bitter  Rot 129 

97  Black  Rot      129 

98  Soft  Rot  or  Blue  Mold       129 

99  Baldwin  Spot        129 

100  Fruit  Spot 129 

101  Pink  Rot  Following  Apple  Scab 130 

102  Pasteboard  Packages  for  Shipping  Fruit       . .      . .  138 

103  Apples  by  Parcel  Post        139 

104  A  Special  Carton 140 

105  Packages  of  Fruit  Ready  for  the  Postman     . .      . .  141 

106  Delivering  Barreled  Apples  to  the  Railroad  . .      . .  142 

107  Transporting  Fruit  by  Auto  Truck 150 

108  Catering  to  the  Home  Market 153 

109  Diagram  of  Fruit-Handling  Exchanges 179 

110  Auction  Warehouse 210 

111  Sampling  Fruit  Before  Auction  Sales     . .      . ".      . .  211 

112  Catalogs  of  Auction  Companies       212 

113  Fruit  Auction  Room,  New  York  City 212 

113a  Delivering  After  the   Sales       214 

114  The  Free  City  Market  at  Boston,  Mass 215 

115  Peddling  Fruit  in  a  Tenement  Section  of  New  York  217 

116  City  Fruit  Stands  Near  Garbage  Barrels       . .      . .  218 

117  Buying  from  Push-Carts,  East  Side,  New  York  . .  219 

118  Sidewalk  Fruit  Market,  New  York 219 

119  A  New  York  Push-Cart      220 

120  Using  the  Sidewalk  as  a  Fruit  Stand       221 

121  Fruit  Stand  Under  Williamsburg  Bridge,  New  York  221 

122  A  Fruit  Stand  of  the  Better  Class 222 

123  Roasting  Coffee  in  a  Jobbing  House       235 

124  A  Western  Fruit  Show       255 

125  A  Carload  Exhibit  of  Apples . .  260 

126  A  Box  and  Barrel  Display  of  Fruit       261 

127  Harvesting  Scene  in  an  Almond  Orchard       . .      . .  262 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

Figure  Page 

128  The  Panama  Canal  Built  Out  of  Dried  Apples     . .  264 

129  An  Attractive  Booth  in  a  Fruit  Show 265 

130  A  Feature  Display  for  a  Fruit  Show       266 

131  An  Attractive  Fruit  Display 267 

132  Judging  Fruit,  Examining  the  Bulge       270 

133  Examining  Box  Packs  for  Compactness 273 

134  Examining  Box  Packs  for  End-Play       274 

135  Examining  Fruit  for  Diseases,  Insects  or  Bruises. .  275 

136  Testing  Fruit  for  Uniformity 276 


MODERN   FRUIT  MARKETING 

CHAPTER  1 

FRUIT  HARVESTING  OPERATIONS 

Picking  Operations. — The  gathering  of  fruit  from 
the  trees  is  quite  simple  in  theory  yet  exceedingly  varied 
in  practice.  Each  section  of  the  country  has  developed 
different  methods  of  handling  the  fruit,  depending  for 
the  most  part  upon  the  demands  of  the  market  in  which 
the  fruit  is  sold.  In  some  sections  growers  are  exceed- 
ingly careful  and  use  painstaking  care  in  picking  and 
preparing  the  fruit  for  market ;  others  are  indifferent 
or  are  poorly  equipped  to  handle  the  fruit  properly. 
It  not  infrequently  happens  that  sections  having  ideal 
locations  for  orchards  produce  very  poor  or  inferior 
fruit.  Such  sections  are  either  overshadowed  by  some 
other  industry  or  are  lacking  in  men  with  intelligence 
and  enterprise  to  develop  them. 

Time  to  Pick. — The  time  at  which  the  various  fruits 
should  be  picked  will  depend  upon  several  factors,  such 
as:  (1)  The  variety  or  kind  of  fruit.  (2)  Distance 
from  market.  (3)  Maturity  of  the  fruit.  (4)  The  use 
to  which  it  is  to  be  put.  Each  variety  or  kind  of  fruit 
is  at  its  best  for  only  a  comparatively  short  time.  Some 
of  the  softer  fruits,  like  peaches,  plums,  apricots  or 
berries,  are  in  their  prime  only  four  or  five  days,  while 
apples,  pears,  etc.,  will  often  keep  for  months.  The 
efforts  in  all  cases  should  be  to  have  the  fruit  reach  the 
consumer  while  in  its  best  prime  condition. 

1 


V  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Deciduous  fruit  shipped  from  the  Pacific  Coast  to  the 
Eastern  markets  consumes  about  14  days  in  transit; 
from  Texas  about  eight ;  f'rom  Georgia  or  Alabama  about 
four ;  while  in  most  of  the  New  England  or  Atlantic  states 
the  fruit  is  picked  one  day  and  is  in  the  hands  of  the  con- 
sumer the  next.  This  gives  the  Eastern  states  an  enor- 
mous market  advantage  for  their  fruit,  and  were  it  not 
for  the  fact  that  the  seasonal  differences  allow  the  South- 
ern and  Far  Western  states  to  ripen  their  fruit  from  10  to 
30  days  ahead  of  the  north,  they  would  be  shut  out  en- 
tirely from  the  eastern  markets. 

The  long  time  elapsing  between  the  picking  and  con- 
suming of  the  more  perishable  fruits  where  the  long 
haul  is  necessary,  compels  much  of  it  to  be  picked  be- 
fore it  is  sufficiently  mature  to  ripen  in  the  best  prime 
condition.  Then,  too,  the  great  rush  among  some  of  the 
southern  growers  to  get  the  first  fruit  on  the  market 
and  thus  secure  the  highest  prices  furnishes  an  undue 
incentive  to  pick  half  mature  fruit.  Such  fruits  as 
peaches,  plums,  apricots,  and  grapes  thus  picked  ar- 
rive in  the  northern  markets  in  poor  condition.  They 
are  lacking  in  flavor,  are  acid,  flat,  and  often  insipid. 
Such  have  had  much  to  do  in  creating  an  impression 
among  the  consumers  in  the  big  cities  that  certain  sec- 
tions cannot  produce  fruit  as  high  in  quality  or  flavor 
as  the  Northern  states. 

When  to  Pick. — The  time  to  pick  fruit  is  largely  a 
matter  of  judgment.  Much  has  been  said  and  written 
upon  this  subject  but  very  little  of  it  is  of  practical 
value  to  the  beginner.  The  maturity  of  the  seed  is  often 
given  as  an  indication  of  the  proper  time  to  pick,  but 
this  is  of  little  value  to  the  practical  man,  because  the 


FRUIT    HARVESTING   OPERATIONS  3 

picker,  who  is  not  familiar  with  the  fruit  as  a  rule,  will 
not  be  able  to  tell  when  the  seeds  are  mature. 

Some  varieties  have  seeds  that  are  very  dark  when 
the  picking  time  arrives,  other  kinds  have  white  or 
slightly  colored  seeds,  and  to  use  these  as  a  guide,  one 
would  need  to  be  familiar  with  all  of  the  different  kinds 
of  fruit.  Also,  in  regard  to  the  color  of  the  fruit:  it 
has  often  been  said  that  red  fruit  should  get  a  high 


Fig.  2.— HARVESTING  PEACHES  IN  GEORGIA 


color  before  harvesting.  This  is  true  only  in  a  general 
way,  because  a  fruit  that  is  highly  colored  in  one  sec- 
tion of  the  country  may  be  more  or  less  lacking  in  color 
in  others.  Take,  for  example,  the  common  Baldwin;  in 
the  north  this  is  a  very  highly  colored  fruit,  but  as  you 
go  south  into  the  warmer  states,  it  becomes  almost  a 
green  apple. 


4  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

The  only  way  for  the  beginner  to  be  sure  and  get  the 
fruit  harvested  at  the  right  time  is  to  experiment.  It 
is  of  little  value  to  rely  upon  the  advice  of  neighbors 
unless  one  knows  that  they  have  been  successful.  The 
person  unfamiliar  with  the  harvesting  operations  can 
pick  a  few  packages  of  fruit  and  send  them  to  market 
and  the  returns  that  he  gets  will  very  soon  indicate  to 
him  whether  the  fruit  arrived  in  good  condition.  By 
keeping  in  touch  with  the  selling  force,  be  it  a  com- 
mission man  or  a  special  agent,  he  can  tell  to  a  much 
better  advantage  just  when  to  pick  the  fruit  in  order 
to  get  it  in  the  hands  of  the  consumer  in  the  best  prime 
condition. 

In  the  Northern  states,  apples  are  usually  allowed 
to  hang  on  the  trees  as  late  in  the  fall  as  climatic  con- 
ditions will  warrant.  Most  of  the  growth  in  size  and 
flavor  apparently  comes  in  the  last  two  or  three  weeks 
of  the  growing  period  in  the  fall,  and  if  the  fruit  can 
be  allowed  to  hang  on  the  trees,  it  will  develop  much 
in  size  and  in  quality  during  this  time.  The  earlier 
varieties  in  the  North  and  the  other  varieties  in  the 
South  are  usually  picked  when  the  market  conditions 
are  best  to  receive  them.  In  most  states,  large  quanti- 
ties of  apples  are  put  in  storage.  This  is  commendable 
in  many  respects,  and  will  be  considered  more  in  detail 
in  another  place. 

Peaches,  plums  and  apricots  have  to  be  picked  every 
day  or  every  other  day,  because  the  period  in  which  they 
are  at  the  best  is  very  short.  If  they  are  allowed  to 
stay  on  the  tree  too  long  they  become  soft  and  do  not 
u  stand  up "  when  they  reach  the  market  Pears  are 
almost  always,  picked  before  they  are  mature.  They 


FRUIT   HARVESTING   OPERATIONS  5 

ripen  much  better  in  the  dark  in  storage  than  they  do 
on  the  trees.  Many  varieties  of  pears  are  ruined  by 
being  allowed  to  remain  on  the  trees  too  long.  They 
often  develop  a  coarse  grain  and  are  full  of  hard,  gritty 
spicules  which  give  a  consumer  the  impression  that  he 
is  eating  sand.  Frequently  "water  core"  appears,  and 
the  fruit  rapidly  deteriorates.  "When  ripened  in  stor- 
age in  the  dark,  these  spicules  or  grit  do  not  develop 
so  much  and  the  fruit  keeps  much  longer. 

Cherries  are  best  picked  when  they  are  about  in  the 
condition  to  be  eaten.  If  they  have  to  be  shipped  a  long 
distance  they  are  sometimes  picked  a  little  green  and, 
like  peaches  and  apricots,  often  reach  the  market  in 
very  poor  condition.  In  the  famous  cherry  belt  of  the 
Pacific  Coast,  we  often  find  the  growers  going  through 
their  orchards  and  picking  off  a  cherry  here  and  a 
cherry  there  over  hundreds  of  trees  to  make  up  a  five 
or  ten-pound  package  to  ship  East,  and  while  fruit 
growers  in  the  Eastern  and  Northern  states  are  still 
shoveling  snow,  these  first  cherries  arrive  on  the  markets 
in  the  big  cities.  Some  of  them  have  sold  as  high  as 
$100  for  the  first  ten  pounds.  These  are  largely  matters 
of  advertising  as  such  fruit  is  not  usually  in  very  good 
condition  to  eat. 

Such  fruits  as  olives,  oranges  and  lemons  are  picked  at 
several  different  stages,  according  to  the  use  to  which 
they  are  going  to  be  put.  Lemons  are  almost  always 
picked  according  to  size  and  the  stem  is  cut  off  witt  the 
shears.  The  first  of  the  dlives'  for  pickling  are  care- 
fully removed  by  hand;  after  that  the  olives  that  go 
into  oil  are  shaken  from  the  tree  and  gathered  from  the 
ground.  Such  fruit  as  figs  is  allowed  to  drop. naturally 


> 


o  ^ 

IS 

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a  I 
- 


2 


o 

s  I 


FRUIT   HARVESTING  OPERATION'S  7 

from,  the  trees  and  are  then  picked  up  and  dried  in  the 
sun.  Prunes  are  handled  in  the  same  way.  Almonds 
and  other  nuts  are  allowed  to  fall  naturally  from  the 
trees,  or  in  some  cases  the  almonds  are  knocked  off  from 
the  trees  and  gathered  in  large  canvas  sheets  spread 
under  the  trees.  Grapes  for  shipping  long  distances  are 
picked  by  hand,  bunches  being  removed  with  a  shears. 


Fig.  4.— "KNOCKING  ALMONDS,"  SACRAMENTO  VALLEY,  CAL. 

Those  that  are  dried  for  raisins,  or  go  into  the  wine  and 
grape  juice  industries,  are  pulled  off  more  or  less  roughly 
from  the  vines. 

Persimmons  are  usually  allowed  to  hang  on  the  trees 
until  frost,  because  before  this  time  they  are  so  astrin- 
gent that  they  have  no  particular  market  value.  In  the 
Gulf  states  many  of  the  persimmons  dry  on  the  trees 


8  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

and,  after  being  thus  dried,  are  removed  by  hand. 
Through  it  all,  there  is  one  general  rule  to  keep  in  mind  : 
That  all  first  or  second  quality  fruit  should  be  picked 
by  hand  and  handled  with  e.very  possible  care. 

Stems  On  or  Off.  —  Different  sections  of  the  country 
have  different  ways  of  handling  the  fruit,  but  the  cus- 
tom is  generally  to  pick  all  of  the  more  perishable  fruits 
with  the  stems  on.  Every  stem  that  is  pulled  out  of  a 
fruit  breaks  the  skin,  and  this  allows  an  entrance  for 
some  of  the  decay  organisms.  Some  fruits  separate 
naturally  from  the  stem,  while  in  others  it  is  quite  diffi- 
cult to  remove  the  fruit  and  keep  the  stem  with  it.  With 
some  of  the  more  tender  fruits,  such  as  strawberries 
and  sweet  cherries,  the  fruit  is  picked  with  the  stem 
on.  In  order  to  do  this  the  thumb  and  finger  is  placed 
each  side  of  the  stem  itself,  the  hand  not  touching  the 
fruit. 

This  entails  considerable  care  on  the  part  of  the  picker, 
but  in  ac'tual  practice  has  always  been  found  successful. 
In  the  United  States,  the  fruits  that  are  'picked  with  the 
stems  on  are  more  or  less  the  same  in  all  of  the  different 
fruit-growing  sections.  The  following  list  includes  the 
more  common  fruits  which  are  picked  with  the  stems  on 
or  off. 

STEMS    WITH    REGARD    TO    COMMON    PRACTICE 
Stems  on  Stems  o 


Apple  Plum  Orange  Raspberry 

Pear  Persimmon  Pomelo  Blackberry 

Quince  Grape  Peach  Dewberry 

Cherry  Strawberry  Apricot  Almond 

Lemon  Currant  Prune  Walnut 

Citron  Pig  Olive 
Lime 


FRUIT   HARVESTING  OPERATIONS  9 

Care  in  Picking. — In  removing  the  fruit  from  the 
trees  too  much  cannot  be  said  in  regard  to  the  care  in 
handling.  Much  fruit  is  ruined  by  carelessness  in  pick- 
ing. Often  fruit  is  dropped  into  receptacles,  poured 
roughly  into  boxes  or  barrels,  jolted  over  rough  roads  in 
wagons  without  springs  and  in  many  ways  handled  so 
carelessly  that  fully  50  or  75%  of  its  market  value  is 
wasted.  A  good  picker  should  always  work  with  both 
hands.  The  fruit  is  grasped  in  the  palm  of  the  hand 
and  not  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  Often  a  very 
slight  pull  is  sufficient  to  remove  the  fruit,  but  in  some 
of  the  more  persistent  varieties,  a  twist  and  an  upward 
lift  at  the  same  time  is  necessary  to  get  it  off  without 
pulling  on  the  stems.  Good  apples  or  fruit  of  any  kind 
should  never  be  dropped  or  poured  from  one  basket  to 
another.  Every  effort  is  made  to  handle  the  fruit  as 
carefully  as  possible,  usually  picking  the  fruit  from  one 
package  to  another  like  an  egg-sorter  would  handle  eggs. 
To  the  fruit  grower  who  is  familiar  with  the  different 
methods  of  picking,  nothing  is  more  disgusting  than  to 
see  a  person  step  up  to  a  nice  peach  or  apple  and  stick 
his  thumb  through  the  skin  to  see  if  it  is  soft  enough 
to  eat.  This  almost  invariably  indicates  ignorance  or 
gross  carelessness. 

Succession  of  Pickings. — In  many  apple  sections, 
what  is  commonly  known  as  a  "succession  of  pickings'* 
is  made.  By  this  is  meant  the  going  over  of  the  trees 
several  times,  picking  first  the  fruit  which  is  the  right 
size  and  the  best  colored  and  then,  a  few  days  later, 
repeating  the  process.  This  is  an  accepted  rule  among 
deciduous  fruit  growers  of  plums,  peaches,  etc.,  but  is 
not  generally  practiced  in  the  Northern  or  Eastern  states 


10  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

among  the  apple  growers.  In  Washington  and  Oregon 
this  is  quite  often  done,  and  it  has  been  found  by  ex- 
periment that  fruit  that  is  entirely  too  small  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  saleable  product  at  the  first  picking  would 
in  two  weeks  time  be  large  enough  to  go  into  a  first 
grade.  Where  the  growers  are  carrying  on  very  in- 
tensive orcharding  the  practice  of  successive  pickings 
should  be  recommended.  The  weather  conditions  some- 


Fig.  5.— TYPES  OF  PICKING  RECEPTACLES 
a — Pulp   pail;    6 — woven   splint  basket;    c — wide  splint  basket. 

times  militate  against  doing  this  successfully,  but  many 
times  it  will  greatly  increase  the  quality  as  well  as  the 
quantity  of  the  fruit  harvested. 

Picking  Receptacles. — For  the  most  part,  orchardists 
like  best  the  ordinary  splint  basket  to  pick  the  fruit  in. 
There  are  a  number  of  these  picking  baskets  on  the 
market,  and  most  of  them  are  fairly  satisfactory.  One 
holding  about  half  a  bushel  is  the  best  size.  The  handle 
ought  to  be  fastened  on  the1  outside  so  as  to  swing  clear 


FRUIT   HARVESTING  OPERATIONS 


11 


of  the  basket.  This  facilitates  the  emptying  of  apples 
into  a  barrel.  Baskets  having  the  wide  splints  and  a 
smooth  interior  are  the  best.  (Fig.  5  c.)  Those  having  a 
woven  (Fig.  5  ft.)  splint  work  are  not  recommended  be- 
cause of  the  many  sharp  corners  on  the  inside.  It  is 
usually  not  practical  to  line 
such  baskets  with  burlap,  be- 
cause the  small  partidles  of 
bark,  grit  and  dirt  will  stick 
into  the  burlap,  and  the  sharp 
corners  break  or  puncture  the 
skin.  A  very  small  puncture 
will  often  cause  decay  as 
quickly  as  a  large  bruise. 

Picking  Bags.  —  Various 
kinds  of  picking  bags  are  also 
in  use.  These,  for  the  most 
part,  are  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, especially  those  that 
are  all  constructed  of  cloth  or 
canvas.  Some  of  the  picking 

bags  have  a  wooden  piece  around  the  top  which  will  help 
protect  the  fruit.  These  are  better  than  the  other  kind. 
The  great  objection  to  a  picking  bag  is  that  in  climbing 
over  a  ladder  or  through  a  tree,  the  fruit  is  often 
bruised  through  the  bag;  Small  particles  also  collect  on 
the  inside  of  the  bag  the  same  as  they  do  on  the  burlap- 
lined  basket,  and  the  sharp  corners  of  the  very  fine 
particles  tend  to  puncture  the  skin  of  the  fruit. 

In  some  places,  tin  pails  or  wooden  pails  (Fig.  5  a.) 
are  used.  These  are  very  satisfactory  if  rightly  handled. 
A  tin  pail,  as  long  as  it  is  new  and  flexible,  is  a  good  pick- 


FRONT  BACK 

6.— A   HANDY    PICKING 

BAG 
Not  as  good  as  basket. 


12  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

ing  receptacle.  After  it  becomes  rusty,  it  may  best  be  dis- 
carded. One  advantage  of  a  tin  pail  is  that  a  foreman 
or  superintendent  could  tell  for  quite  a  distance  whether 
his  men  were  handling  the  fruit  carefully  or  not  by  the 
amount  of  noise  made  in  the  pail.  In  many  of  the 


Fig.    7.— DESIRABLE    FRUIT    PICKING   LADDERS 
a — Pointed   rung   ladder;    b — three-legged   step-ladder. 

"Western  states  deciduous  fruits,  such  as  peaches,  plums, 
etc.,  are  picked  in  these  pails. 

There  are  also  to  be  found  on  the  market  various 
types  of  special  picking  tools.  These  are  usually  ar- 
ranged on  some  kind  of  a  pole  or  long  handle  with  a 
basket  or  cuplike  affair  on  the  end  to  catch  the  fruit 
and  remove  it  from  the  tree.  Sometimes  there  are 
little  knives  to  cut  off  the  stems  of  the  fruit;  occasion- 


FRUIT   HARVESTING  OPERATIONS 


13 


ally  there  are  wire  claws  which  are  supposed  to  pull 
off  the  fruit.  Some  of  them  have  long  tube-like  sacks 
made  of  cloth  through  which  the  fruit  can  roll  down 
and  be  caught  in  a  receptacle  at  the  lower  end.  On  a 
commercial  basis  none  of  these  fruit-picking  tools  have 
ever  proved  successful.  They  are  good  for  sampling  or 
for  picking  specimen  fruit  for  shows,  etc.,  but  are  alto- 
gether too  slow  for 
commercial  work. 

Ladders.  —  There 
are  but  two  kinds  of 
ladders  commercial- 
ly used  in  an  orch- 
ard. One,  the  com- 
mon step-  ladder 
(Fig.  7  &.), the  other 
the  long  or  rung- 
ladder  (Fig.  7  a.). 
The  step-ladders  are 
about  8  or  10  feet 
high,  and  have  only 
three  legs.  The  third 
leg  is  reinforced  at 
the  top  by  braces 
and  comes  to  a  point 

on  the  ground.  This  is  necessary  because  of  the 
general  unevenness  of  the  orchard  land.  The  three- 
legged  ladder  can  always  maintain  an  even  position 
while  it  is  usually  difficult  to  properly  set  a 
four-legged  ladder.  The  rung  or  long  ladders  are  made 
of  light  material  and  always  small  enough  so  that 
one  man  can  handle  them  alone.  It  is  a  waste  of  time  to 


Fig.  8.— A  CONVERTIBLE  STEP-LADDER 


14 


MODERN    FRUIT   MARKETING 


use  a  big  ladder  that  two  people  will  have  to  move. 
The  top  end  or  point  should  be  drawn  together  so  as 
to  enable  it  to  be  pushed  up  through  the  limbs  or  the 
branches.  A  square  top  on  the  ladder  is  always  catch- 
ing on  the  limbs  and  knocking  off  the  fruit.  The  rungs 

are  made  as 
large  as  possible, 
because  it  is 
tiresome  work 
for  a  picker  to 
stand  all  day  on 
small  pins,  and 
the  more  one 
can  contribute 
to  the  comfort 
of  the  picker, 
the  better  work 
he  will  do. 

Disposition  of 
the  Fruit. —  It 
has  been  cus- 
tomary among 
the  growers  of 
the  Northern 

and  Eastern  states  to  put  the  apples  on  the  ground  in 
piles,  protected  from  the  soil  by  a  little  straw.  These 
have  been  allowed  to  remain  in  the  pile  for  several  weeks, 
and  frequently  have  been  graded  and  packed  in  barrels 
direct  from  these  piles.  The  argument  in  favor  of  this 
method  was  that  the  fruit  which  had  started  to  decay 
would  be  discovered  when  it  was  regraded  and  could  be 
thrown  out.  This,  however,  no  longer  applies,  because  if 


Fig.  9.— A  CONVENIENT  HOME-MADE  PICK- 
ING LADDER  FOR  LOW-HEADED  TREES 


FRUIT   HAHVKSTIXG   OPERATIONS 


15 


the  fruit  is  carefully  handled,  the  bad  or  bruised  ones  will 
be  very  few  and  can  be  easily  thrown  out  when  the  grad- 
ing is  done.  It  is  now  customary  to  place  all  of  the 
fruit,  as  fast  as  it  is  picked,  in  either  barrels  or  boxes 
and  then  remove  it 
immediately  to  stor- 
age or  to  the  packing- 
house. 

The  western  people 
favor  the  box  (Fig. 
11).  If  they  do  not 
care  to  take  the  regu- 
lar packing-box  into 
the  field,  they  provide 
what  is  known  as  the 
"lug"  box  holding 
about  50  pounds  each. 
Fruit  is  put  into 
these,  placed  on  a  low 
wagon  (Fig.  12),  and 
taken  immediately 
to  the  packing-house. 
It  is  then  packed  di- 
rect from  these  boxes,  Fig.  10._ TYPE  OF  PICKING  LADDER 
hence  no  pouring,  or  USED  IN  THE  NORTH  WESTERN  u.  s. 
little  handling  of  the 

fruit  is  necessary.  The  Eastern  fruit  growers  are  gradu- 
ally adopting  the  box  method,  and  in  a  few  years  it  is 
probable  that  the  barrels  will  be  largely  replaced  by  boxes. 
However,  the  barrel  can  be  used  to  good  advantage,  and 
is  quite  a  convenient  receptacle  in  which  to  move  the 
apples  from  the  orchard  to  the  packing-house.  As  soon 


16 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


as  the  fruit  is  picked  from  the  tree,  it  is  placed  in  these 

boxes  or  barrels 
and  set  in  the 
shade.  The  same 
day  or  night  it 
is  removed  to 
the  grading- 
house.  In  some 
of  the  warmer 
sections  of  the 
country,  the 
fruit  is  hauled 

1O./2"     X     iL^4". 

away  early  in 

the  morning,  allowing  the  night  time  for  it  to  cool  down 
as  much  as  it  will. 

Moving  the  Fruit.— In  transferring  the  fruit  from  the 
orchard  to  the  packing-house  or  storage  cellar,  consider- 
able attention  will  need  to  be  paid  to  the  wagon  on 


Fig.  11.— FIELD  FRUIT  BOX,  OR  "LUG"  BOX 

Ends,  7/%";  sides,  Y2"  thick;  size,  inside,  26 y2"  x 


Fig.  12.— A  VERY  CONVENIENT  WAGON  FOR  MOVING  THE  FRUIT 
FROM  THE  ORCHARD 


FRUIT   HARVESTING   OPERATIONS 


17 


which  it  is  moved.  In  the  first  place,  the  wagon  ought 
to  have  low  wheels  and  a  flat  bed  extending  out  over  the 
wheels.  The  energy  that  is  used  in  lifting  barrels  or 
boxes  up  into  a  high  wagon  is  wasted,  and  besides, 
some  of  the  fruit  may  be  bruised  in  this  way.  If  an 


Fig.   13.— A  "THREE   DECKER"   FRUIT  WAGON  FOR  LONG  HAULS 


ordinary  wagon  is  used,  it  ought  to  be  a  low-wheeled 
one  with  springs  under  the  bed  to  keep  the  fruit  from 
being  bruised.  For  moving  barrels  one  of  the  common 
drop-axle  wagons  is  best.  In  such  a  wagon  the  bed 
runs  only  18  or  20  inches  from  the  ground  and  it  is 
quite  easy  for  two  men  to  handle  the  barrels.  On  side 
hills  or  on  very  rough  land  where  it  is  not  feasible  to 
use  a  wagon,  some  kind  of  a  boat  or  sled  is  necessary. 
Usually  such  a  conveyance  is  easily  made  on  the  farm. 
The  fruit  is  allowed  to  slide  down  the  hills  to  the  perma- 


18  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

nent  roads  where  it  may  be  transferred  to  the  fruit 
wagons.  The  spring  wagon  is  not  only  necessary  for 
orchard  work,  but  also  for  carrying  the  fruit  from  the 
packing-house  to  the  railway  or  shipping  points. 

Managing  Pickers. — When  one  begins  to  offer  sug- 
gestions upon  the  management  of  help  on  a  fruit  farm 
he  is  immediately  piling  upon  himself  criticisms  from 
various  sources,  because  the  labor  question  in  connec- 
tion with  fruit  growing  is  becoming  one  of  the  most 
serious  problems  connected  with  the  business.  In  sec- 
tions of  the  country  where  large  areas  are  devoted  to 
fruit,  it  is  often  exceedingly  difficult  to  get  competent 
help  for  harvesting  or  handling  the  fruit.  Often,  in 
small  areas  more  or  less  isolated  from  the  larger  centers 
of  population,  growers  have  to  abandon  their  fruit  be- 
cause of  the  cost  of  labor  or  the  lack  of  sufficient  help. 

Tramp  Labor. — In  the  larger  fruit  sections  of  the 
Western  and  Middle  states,  most  of  the  day  labor  con- 
sists of  the  great  floating  population  which  is  popularly 
known  as  "tramps  or  hobos."  Such  labor,  although  not 
the  best,  is  usually  the  class  that  has  to  be  relied  upon 
in  harvesting  fruit  crops.  These  floating  laborers  will 
winter  either  in  the  South  or  in  the  big  cities  of  the 
East.  In  the  spring  they  drift  South  and  begin  pick- 
ing fruit  at  the  opening  of  the  season  in  the  Southern 
states  and  then  gradually  work  north  until  the  season 
closes  and  they  find  themselves  in  the  North  as  far  as 
the  fruit  industry  extends ;  drifting  back  to  the  South  or 
to  the  big  cities  to  spend  the  winter.  Much  of  this  help 
is  unreliable  and  uncertain,  and  each  fruit-producing  sec- 
tion has  to  work  out  the  problem  of  harvesting  its  fruit 
according  to  the  needs  of  its  own  particular  locality. 


FRUIT   HARVESTING  OPERATIONS  19 

Day  Labor. — Unless  an  owner  has  help  that  he  knows 
to  be  reliable,  it  is  not  good  policy  to  hire  by  the  month 
or  by  the  box.  The  best  results  are  obtained  from  day 
labor.  In  such  cases  the  workmen  know  they  get  so 
much  pay  for  so  many  hours  work,  and  are  not  inclined 
to  hurry  or  to  bruise  or  spoil  the  fruit.  Occasionally, 
some  growers  like  to  have  the  fruit  picked  by  the  tree 
or  on  a  contract  job  for  the  whole  orchard.  This  very 


Fig.  14.— A  COMBINED  ORCHARD  AND  DELIVERY  WAGON  FOR 
SMALL  ORCHARD 


often  does  not  prove  to  the  best  interest  of  the  producer. 
Much  of  the  fruit  is  spoiled,  some  of  it  is  skipped  and 
left  on  the  trees,  while  limbs  are  split  down  and  the 
trees  generally  despoiled. 

Small  Fruits  by  Quart.— Small  fruits  are  most  always 
picked  by  the  quart  because  there  is  always  a  foreman  or 
superintendent  to  inspect  each  quart  as  they  come  in, 
and  in  case  the  workman  is  not  picking  properly  he  can 
be  dealt  with  at  the  time. 

Prices  Paid. — For  small  fruits  the  price  varies  per 
quart  in  the  different  states  and,  in  some  cases,  different 
sections  of  the  same  state.  In  Xew  Jersey,  for  straw- 


20  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

berries  it  is  customary  to  pay  l1/^  cents  a  quart;  in 
Michigan,  about  the  same ;  while  in  New  England  states, 
2  cents  is  often  paid.  In  the  case  of  the  raspberry  or 
blackberry,  often  as  high  as  3  or  4  cents  a  quart  is  paid. 
Keeping  Records. — Where  berries  or  fruit  are  picked 
by  the  quart  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  system  of 
keeping  records.  This  is  usually  done  by  means  of 


Fig.  15.— A  BAND  OF  APPLE  PICKERS  IN  MAINE 

tickets.  Small  pasteboard  tickets,  on  which  are  printed 
the  various  number  of  quarts,  are  handed  out  to  the 
pickers  as  they  bring  in  their  carriers  of  berries.  Some 
of  the  tickets  have  several  numbers  marked  around  the 
border  and  a  place  in  the  center  to  write  the  picker's 
name,  and  as  the  berries  are  brought  in,  the  super- 
intendent or  foreman  punches  out  the  number  corre- 
sponding with  the  number  of  quarts  brought. 

This  method  has  not  always  proved  satisfactory  be- 


FRUIT  HARVESTING  OPERATIONS  21 

cause  of  the  ease  in  which  mistakes  occur  or  in  which 
the  picker  might  imitate  the  punch  marks.  Where  the 
smaller  quart  tickets  are  used  there  ought  to  be  some 
mark  on  them  to  prevent  them  being  duplicated.  This 
can  be  done  by  having  engraved  on  them  the  signature 
of  the  owner. 


CHAPTER    II 

PREPARING  THE  FRUITS  FOR  MARKET 

The  Packing-House. — Almost  all  fruits  are  arranged 
for  market  in  some  kind  of  a  packing-house,  and  this  is 
usually  necessary.  Fruit  ought  not  to  he  exposed  to 
the  sun  during  the  day  and,  in  the  Northern  states, 
where  apples  are  harvested  late,  they  must  be  protected 
at  night  from  extreme  and  varying  temperatures.  This 
may  best  be  done  in  a  specially  designed  packing-house. 

For  small  fruits  in  the  Northern  states,  and  for  some 
of  the  tree-fruits  in  the  South,  the  only  packing-house 
that  is  necessary  is  four  posts  set  up  in  the  orchard, 
v/ith  a  wood  or  canvas  roof  to  keep  out  the  sun  and  give 
a  comfortable  place  for  the  workmen  to  grade  and  pack 
tlie  fruit.  The  old  practice  of  packing  fruit,  especially 
apples,  in  dark  cellars  under  dwellings,  is  decidedly 
unpractical.  In  the  first  place,  they  are  always  dark 
and  usually  damp  and  uncomfortable  places  for  the 
men  to  work;  besides  large  quantities  of  fruit  stored 
under  a  residence  is  not  good  for  the  health  of  the 
family  living  above. 

Where  more  than  30  or  40  barrels  of  fruit  are  to  be 
harvested  and  stored,  some  kind  of  a  special  cellar  and 
packing-house  is  provided.  In  large  orchards  these 
may  be  erected  in  the  orchard  itself.  In  other  places 
it  is  put  up  near  the  other  buildings  of  the  farm,  mak- 
ing it  convenient  to  the  residence  and  so  far  as  possible 

90 


PREPARING  THE  FRUITS  FOR  MARKET 


23 


easy  to  get  the  fruit  to  and  from  the  house.  A  small 
building  20  x  24  feet  is  large  enough  to  accommodate 
200  to  250  barrels  of  fruit.  This  may  be  constructed 
in  two  stories;  a  basement  below,  well  insulated  for 
protection  from  winter  colds,  and  a  story  above  for  the 
grading  and  packing  of  the  fruit.  If  an  attic  can  be 


Fig.  16.— PACKING-HOUSE  AND  STORAGE  CELLAR 
1,000  bbls.  capacity.     30  x  40  ft. 

added,  this  will  greatly  facilitate  the  storing  of  empty 
packages,  fruit  boxes,  etc.,  during  the  summer.  Such  a 
building  is  of  the  nature  of  a  permanent  improvement 
to  the  place,  and  while  not  costing  a  great  amount  it  is 
a  decided  advantage.  Besides  being  used  for  apples  or 
other  fruit,  it  may  in  other  ways  be  used  to  good  ad- 
vantage during  the  summer.  Such  a  building  may  be 
arranged  in  different  ways  to  suit  the  convenience  of 


24 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


the  particular  locality,   or  increased  in  size  to  accom- 
modate much  larger  quantities  of  fruit. 

Central  Packing-Houses. — Many  places  in  the  United 
States  where  the  fruit  areas  are  large,  growers  do  not 


Fig.   17. — PLAN  OF  PACKING  ROOM 

30  ft.  x  40  ft. 

pack  their  own  fruit.  This  is  especially  true  where  co- 
operative organizations  are  in  vogue.  It  has  been  found 
by  experience  that  the  average  grower  cannot  pack  his 
own  fruit  and  maintain  a  uniform  package  from  year 
to  year.  Each  grower  has  a  little  different  standard 
as  his  own.  Hence,  some  of  the  cooperative  organiza- 


PREPARING   THE    FRUITS   FOR   MARKET 


25 


tions  have  designed  a  simple  warehouse  or  packing-house 
to  which  all  the  fruit  is  brought.  There  it  is  packed  by 
experts.  This  insures  a  much  greater  degree  of  uni- 
formity and  enables  the  cooperative  organizations  to 
guarantee  a  standard  grade  or  pack. 

Many  of  the  Western  fruit  organizations  have  these 
central  packing-houses    and  it  is  from  the  success  of 


Fig.   18.— DELIVERING   TEACHES   TO   A   PRIVATE  PACKING- 
HOUSE IN  GEORGIA 

these  that  their  use  has  spread  to  many  of  the  Eastern 
states.  It  is  quite  probable,  however,  that  this  method 
is  better  suited  to  the  Central  and  Western  states 'than 
to  the  far  East,  because  the  areas  adapted  to  fruit  grow- 
ing in  the  East  are  usually  so  scattered  that  a  central 
packing-house  would  not  draw  enough  fruit  to  make 
it  pay.  A  large  packing  plant  of  this  kind  costs 
several  hundred  dollars,  and  to  be  a  paying  proposition, 
large  quantities  of  fruit  must  be  handled. 

Dividing  into  Grades. — Before  attempting  to  explain 
the  way  fruit  is  graded,  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  clear 


-j(i  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

idea  of  what  makes  up  a  grade.  •  The  grades  of  fruit 
might  be  defined  as  a  division  into  classes,  according  to 
a  certain  custom  or  law.  In.  the  past  there  never  has 
been  any  very  definite  conception  of  just  what  a  standard 
grade  should  be.  This  led  to  a  great  multiplicity  of 
marks  to  represent  grades.  In  fact,  they  have  appeared 
on  the  market  in  such  numbers  that  they  scarcely  mean 


Fig.  19.— CENTRAL  PACKING-HOUSES  FOR  ORANGES  IN  A 
SMALL  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA  TOWN 


anything  to  the  consuming  public.  What  would  mean 
a  fancy  grade  under  one  mark  in  one  section  of  the 
country,  might  be  a  very  poor  grade  when  coming  from 
another  section.  Only  last  year  on  the  Liverpool  market 
in  England,  35  different  brands  representing  supposedly 
standard  grades,  were  found  on  packages  imported  from 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  Under  such  conditions, 
it  has  been  necessary  for  the  buyer  to  open  the  package 
and  examine  the  fruit  personally. 

For  the  past  10  or  15  years  certain  progressive  fruit 


PREPARIXG   THE    FRUITS   FOR   MARKET 


27 


growers  have  attempted  to  establish  standard  grades  for 
the  different  kinds  of  apples,  that  would  be  recognized 
on  the  general  market.  Still  further  they  have  at- 
tempted to  guarantee  these  brands  or  grades  and  if  not 
found  up  to  standard,  as  per  guarantee,  the  purchas- 
ing price  would  be  returned  to  the  buyer.  A  cooperative 


Fig.   20.— CORNER  IX   A   PACKING-HOUSE 
Showing  table  on  which  grading  and  sorting  is  done. 


organization  in  the  West  led  in  the  establishing  of  uni- 
form grades.  It  worked  out  a  set  of  rules  denning  the 
grades  and  gave  instructions  to  growers  or  packers  ex- 
plaining the  way  to  handle  fruit  in  order  to  conform 
with  these  standard  grades. 

This  plan  worked  so  well  on  a  limited  scale  that  other 
organizations  took  the  matter  up,  and  recently  a  number 
cf  states  have  enacted  laws  covering  or  denning  stan- 


28  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

dard  grades.  Such,  laws  in  the  East  have  been  hard 
to  enact  because  the  growers  or  producers  of  fruit  have 
not  been  in  the  habit  of  taking  very  great  pains  with 
their  fruit  or  their  orchards.  A  great  quantity  of  poor 
fruit  has  been  offered  for  sale  for  whatever  it  would 
bring,  and  little  effort  has  been  put  forth  to  improve  the 
quality.  Under  such  conditions,  the  farmers  have  op- 
posed the  enacting  of  such  a  law.  Even  the  govern- 
ment has  hesitated  in  making  a  law  that  would  affect 
the  fruit  industry  as  a  whole.  Their  argument  has  been 
that  conditions  differ  so  greatly  in  different  states  that 
no  law  which  would  affect  all  alike  could  be  made.  How- 
ever, a  federal  law  was  passed  establishing  a  standard 
barrel  and  describing  how  such  fruit  shall  be  marked  or 
the  package  labeled.  Up  until  1914  this  law  was  not 
enforced  because  there  was  no  penalty  for  its  disobey- 
ance  and  the  public  was  not  compelled  to  use  it.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  while  the  Western  states  have 
been  the  leaders  in  establishing  these  standard  grades, 
they  have  been  the  last  to  enact  laws  compelling  their  use. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  names  that  apply  to 
the  different  grades  of  apples  as  enacted  into  law  by  a 
number  of  the  Eastern  states. 

MAINE  LAW: 

Fancy  Apples   2y2"  up 

No.  1  or  Class  1 2y4"  to  2y2" 

No.  2  or  Class  2 2     "to  2%" 

Unclassified    No  size 

NEW  YOEK  STATE  LAW: 
Fancy  Grade 
Standard  ' '  A  "  grade. 
Standard  "B"  grade.    No  sizes, 
Unclassified, 


PREPARING  THE   FRUITS  FOR  MARKET  29 

U.  S.  APPLE  LAW: 
Standard  grade,  minimum  size,  2y2". 
Standard  grade,  minimum  size,  2%". 
Standard  grade,  minimum  size,  2  ". 

CANADIAN  LAW: 
No.  1  or  XXX.  No  sizes  specified. 
No.  2  or  XX.  No  sizes  specified. 
Xo.  3  or  X.  No  sizes  specified. 
Culls. 

It  will  be  noted  in  studying  over  the  requirements  of 
these  laws  that,  in  general,  the  classes  or  grades  are  very 
nearly  the  same  in  the  different  states  as  well  as  in 
Canada.  In  regard  to  the  descriptions  of  these  grades, 
the  laws  also  appear  very  similar.  For  instance,  in  the 
Maine  law,  we  find  the  following:  "Fancy  apples  shall 
consist  of  apples  of  one  variety,  above  the  average  size 
and  color  for  the  variety  and  none  smaller  than  2y2 
inches  in  diameter,  sound  and  free  from  worm  holes, 
bruises,  scab  or  any  other  defect  that  materially  injures 
the  appearance  or  useful  quality  of  the  apples,  and 
shall  be  properly  packed  in  strong,  clean  packages. " 

The  laws  of  the  New  York  State  specify  a  fancy 
grade  as  follows:  "It  shall  consist  of  apples  of  one 
variety  which  are  well-grown  specimens,  which  are  prop- 
erly packed,  of  good  color  for  the  variety,  normal  shape, 
free  from  dirt,  disease,  insects  and  fungus  injury, 
bruises  and  other  defects  except  such  as  are  necessarily 
caused  in  the  operation  of  packing." 

The  United  States  law  says :  ' '  Fancies  shall  be  of  one 
variety  which  are  well-grown  specimens,  hand-picked, 
of  good  color  for  the  variety,  normal  shape,  practically 
free  from  insects  and  fungus  injuries,  bruises  and  other 
defects  except  such  as  are  necessarily  caused  in  the 


30  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

operation  of  packing;  or  apples  of  one  variety  which 
are  not  more  than  10%  below  the  foregoing  specifica- 
tions, shall  be  standard  grade,  minimum  size,  2 1/2  inches, 
if  the  minimum  size  of  the  apple  is  2^  inches  in  trans- 
verse diameter." 

The  Canadian  Law  says:  ''Fruit  shall  not  be  marked 
a  fancy  quality  unless  fruit  consists  of  well-grown  speci- 
mens of  one  variety,  sound,  uniform,  and  of  at  least 
normal  size  and  of  good  color  for  the  variety,  of  normal 
shape,  free  from  worm  holes,  bruises,  scabs  and  any 
other  defect,  and  properly  packed." 

In  the  State  of  Oregon,  where  the  most  of  our  stan- 
dard apple  packs  originated,  we  find  in  the  regulations 
of  one  cooperative  organization  the  following  for  fancy 
apples:  "All  apples  must  be  clean,  fully  matured,  of 
good  color,  free  from  any  insect,  fungus,  rust,  decay  or 
injury  except  where  specified.  Deformed  apples  will  not 
be  accepted."  Another  western  fruit  distributing  or- 
ganization describes  its  Extra  Fancy  as  follows:  "The 
grade  shall  consist  of  sound,  smooth,  matured,  clean, 
hand-packed,  well-formed  apples  only ;  free  from  insects^ 
diseases,  blemishes,  bruises,  and  other  physical  injuries, 
scald,  scab,  scale,  sun  scald,  dry  or  bitter  rot,  worm,  worm 
stings,  worm  holes,  spray  burns,  limb  rub,  visible  water 
core,  skin  punctures  or  skin  broken  at  stem.  All  apples 
must  be  of  good  matured  color,  shape,  and  condition, 
characteristic  of  the  variety. ' '  This  organization  handles 
the  fruit  of  42  local  exchanges  comprising  over  7,000 
growers. 

In  commenting  upon  these  various  grades  as  estab- 
lished by  law,  several  points  are  noted.  First:  The 
regulations  all  refer  to  only  closed  packages,  which 


PREPARING  THE  FRUITS  FOR  MARKET  31 

means  packages  sealed  up  so  that  the  buyer  cannot  easily 
examine  the  contents.  All  packages  not  sealed  would 
not  need  to  conform  in  any  way  to  these  laws.  Second : 
The  State  of  Maine  has  the  only  law  specifying  sizes 
of  apples  according  to  the  different  grades.  The  other 
states  specify  that  the  minimum  size  shall  be  marked 
on  the  package  and  this  minimum  size  shall  not  have 
less  than  95%  of  the  apples  equal  to  or  above  the  size 
mentioned.  Third:  That  the  United  States  law  does 
not  refer  to  anything  except  standard  barrels.  Apples 
packed  in  boxes  or  other  packages  need  not  conform  to 
the  United  States  law. 

The  grade  of  apples  known  'as  the  unclassified,  ac- 
cording to  the  New  York  and  Maine  laws,  is  hardly 
explainable  because  of  its  doubtful  use.  The  only  in- 
stances where  it  seems  to  be  of  value  is  in  case  the 
grower  does  not  wish  to  pack  according  to  any  of  the 
other  standard  grades.  In  enacting  such  a  law,  there 
was  considerable  opposition  among  the  fruit  growers  and 
apparently  the  unclassified  was  put  on  to  gratify  such 
growers  who  did  not  care  to  pack  or  grade  their  fruit; 
because  any  size  or  any  variety  or  mixtures  thereof  may 
be  included  in  this  unclassified  grade,  and  all  that  is 
necessary  to  comply  with  the  law  will  be  to  mark  the 
packages  "unclassified." 

It  is  quite  possible  that  these  laws  will  be  changed  in 
the  near  future  to  conform  more  closely  with  the  stan- 
dard that  the  Western  organizations  have  set.  There  ap- 
parently is  no  question  among  the  more  advanced 
growers  and  handlers  of  fruit  that  standard  grades  and 
packages  are  necessary,  and  they  predict  that  in  a  few 
years  there  will  be  scarcely  any  demand  for  apples  that 


32 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


do  not  conform  to  some  of  these  standard  grades.  The 
consuming  public  has  reached  the  point  where  it  does 
not  care  to  spend  money  upon  uncertainties.  The  cost 
of  living  is  so  high  that  what  it  now  buys  ought  to  be 
guaranteed,  so  that  if  not  conforming  to  the  standard, 
consumers  will  be  able  to  get  their  money  back.  Most 
consumers  do  not  object  to  paying  high  prices  for  goods 
that  are  perfect  or  up  to  the  standard  grade,  but  they 

do  object  to  being 
buncoed  by  buying 
fruit  or  farm  pro- 
duce that  is  not  in 
any  way  reliable. 

Sorting  the 
Fruit. — H  a  v  i  n  g 
determined  what 


the  standard  grade 
shall  be,  the  next 
step  is  to  arrange 
the  packing-house 
so  as  to  best  per- 


Fig.  21. — Packing  or  grading  table,  4'  x  8' 


form  the  operation  of  grading  the  fruit.  In  most  of 
the  packing-houses  in  the  Eastern  states  what  is  known 
as  a  grading  table  is  used.  This  is  a  table  of  the 
right  height  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  individ- 
ual doing  the  grading  (Fig.  21).  It  is  about  8 
feet  long  and  4  feet  wide  and  is  covered  on  the  top  with 
heavy  burlap.  The  apples  are  emptied  upon  this  table 
and  then  picked  into  either  boxes  or  baskets,  depending 
upon  whether  the  fruit  is  packed  in  barrels  or  standard 
apple  boxes.  This  packing  or  grading  table  is  arranged 
so  as  to  have  the  best  light  possible.  The  room  in 


PREPARING  THE   FRUITS   FOR   MARKET  33 

which,  the  work  is  done  is  comfortable  and  clean.  It 
should  have  a  temperature  of  about  60  to  65  degrees. 
This  is  ample  to  enable  the  workers  to  be  comfortable 
and  at  the  same  time  will  not  materially  hasten  the  rip- 
ening processes  of  the  fruit. 

Such  a  place  may  well  be  equipped  with  electric  lights, 
so  that  when  grading  is  done  in  the  late  evenings  or 
on  cloudy  days  there  will  be  no  chance  for  error  be- 
cause of  inability  to  see  blemishes  or  bruises.  It  has 
been  determined  by  experience  that  the  workmen  will 
do  much  better  work  where  all  things  are  convenient 
and  the  room  comfortable,  than  they  will  in  close  or 


Fig.  22.— SIZIXG  BOARD,   18"  x  4"  x  H". 

cramped  quarters.  It  is  not  possible  to  do  good  grad- 
ing or  packing  in  dark,  gloomy  cellars  or  in  open  sheds 
or  buildings  where  the  environment  is  such  as  to  make 
conditions  uncomfortable. 

Thejbeginner  will  usually  need  some  kind  of  a  me- 
chanical device  for  determining  the  sizes  of  the  apples. 
A  small  board  with  holes,  ranging  from  2  to  3  inches 
in  diameter,  is  often  used.  (Fig.  22).  This  is  kept  handy 
so  the  person  grading  can  occasionally  try  an  apple  and 
thus  familiarize  himself  with  the  different  sizes.  After  a 
few  hours  work  with  this  board,  it  can  then  be  largely 
dispensed  with.  Where  pains  are  taken,  in  picking  the 
fruit  from  the  trees,  to  dispose  of  badly  deformed  or 


34 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


wormy  specimens,  all  that  is  necessary  in  the  grading 
house  is  to  separate  according  to  the  requirements  of 
fancies  first  and  second  grades.  When  a  sorter  becomes 
sufficiently  expert  at  ttiis  work,  he  can  grade  and  pack 
at  the  same  time  in  either  boxes  or  barrels,  thus  reduc- 
ing the  amount  of  handling  necessary. 

Mechanical  Fruit  Graders. — During  the  past  five  or 
six  years,  a  number  of  mechanical  fruit  graders  have 
appeared  on  the  market.  Most  of  these  are  designed  for 


Fig.  23.— GRADING  FRUIT  IN  A  WESTERN  CANNERY 

Peaches,  plums,  apricots,  need  to  be  carefully  graded  for  size  and 
ripeness  before  canning. 

use  in  grading  apples.  However,  some  of  them  are  also 
supposed  to  do  good  work  on  other  fruits.  The  citrus 
growers  of  both  California  and  Florida  have  used  me- 
chanical graders  for  10  or  15  years,  and  have  found 
them  a  very  great  help  in  cutting  down  the  expense  of 
the  operation.  They,  however,  do  a  large  business,  often 
sending  out  as  high  as  1,000  cars  of  fruit  from  a  single 
packing-house. 


PREPARING  THE   FRUITS   FOR   MARKET  35 

All  fruit  that  has  to  be  wrapped  and  packed  in  boxes 
needs  to  be  graded  much  more  carefully  than  fruit  that 
is  shipped  loose  in  packages;  as,  for  example,  apples 
shipped  in  barrels.  Most  of  the  mechanical  graders  for 
apples  have  appeared  in  the  Central  or  Western  states, 
but  within  the  past  three  or  four  years,  some  of  them 
have  been  tried  out  in  the  East.  Many  are  still  in  the 
experimental  stage  and  while  they  are  being  used  more 
and  more  every  year,  it  is  still  a  question  whether  they 


Fig.   24.— A   GRADING  MACHINE 
This  machine  weighs  and  tosses  the  fruit  to  separate  compartments. 

are  just  the  best  thing  to  use.  I  am  of  the  opinion,  how- 
ever, that  in  a  few  years  more  they  will  be  perfected 
to  such  an  extent  that  all  large  growers  of  apples  will 
use  them. 

Irregular  shaped  fruit,  like  pears,  or  soft  fruit,  like 
peaches  and  plums,  are  seldom  graded  by  mechanical 
means  and  it  is  not  probable  that  such  devices  will  ever 
be  made  successful.  Fruit  like  strawberries  or  cherries 
which  have  long  stems,  do  not  lend  themselves  to  me- 
chanical appliances,  hence  they  will  probably  always 
have  to  be  graded  by  hand. 


36  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Most  of  the  mechanical  graders  work  on  practically 
the  same  principle.  They  have  a  series  of  cups  or  open- 
ings into  which  the  apples  are  fed  from  the  hopper. 
As  these  cups  advance  they  gradually  increase  in  size 
until  the  apple  contained  in  them  falls  through.  The 
cups  are  the  smallest  at  the  intake.  As  the  fruit  ad- 
vances, it  falls  through  at  different  places,  and  is  caught 
in  receptacles  or  compartments  according  to  the  sizes 


Fig.  25.— A  MECHANICAL  GRADER  HAVING  A  MOVEABLE  WEB 

desired  for  packing.  From  these  compartments  it  is 
packed  into  boxes  or  barrels  as  the  case  may  be.  There 
are  several  different  types  on  the  market,  but  these  cups 
constitute  the  main  principle.  Some  of  them  have  long 
webs,  and  the  cups  pass  around  these  webs  like  a  belt. 
Others  work  in  horizontal  circles  and  still  others  are  on 
a  vertical  wheel  resembling  somewhat  the  principle  of 
the  old-fashioned  water-wheel. 

In  Figure. 26  is  shown  a  method  of  grading.     The 
sizing  is  accomplished  by  28  wooden  flights  mounted  on 


38 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


endless  belts  which  move  from  the  hopper  over  the  entire 
length  of  the  machine.  Each  flight  consists  of  a  board 
having  four  large,  round  holes  drilled  in  it  at  equal  in- 
tervals, beneath  which  is  another  board  similar  to  the  top 
board,  except  that  part  of  the  wood  is  cut  away,  forming 
a  Y  notch,  (which  does  not  show  in  the  illustration). 
This  lower  board  acts  as  a  "  gate ' '  to  the  openings  in  the 


Fig.   27.— APPARATUS   FOR  GRADING   FRUIT 


upper  board,  except  when  the  edges  of  the  holes  coincided 
The  "gate,"  board  slides  longitudinally  with  the  top 
board  and  by  sliding  it  various  distances  the  openings 
may  be  increased  at  will.  At  intervals  along  the  length 
of  the  machine  are  adjustable  gauges,  which  regulate  the 
size  of  the  opening  of  each  flight  as  it  passes.  The  small- 
est fruit  is  dropped  first  and  so  on  until  the  largest  is 
deposited.  Sizes  from  1%  to  3%  and  larger. 


PREPARING  THE   FRUITS   FOR   MARKET  39 

The  rapidity  with  which  they  work  depends  upon  the 
size  and  the  number  of  cups.  The  smaller  machines, 
operated  by  one  man,  grade  from  25  to  50  barrels  a 
day.  The  larger  machines  run  as  high  as  500  to  800 
barrels  a  day,  requiring  three  men  to  operate  them.  Most 
of  them  have  a  power  attachment,  necessitating  a  small 
motor  or  gasoline  engine  to  run  them.  One  and  a  half 
horsepower  is  sufficient  for  most  of  them.  The  cost  of 
the  machines  ranges  from  $50  for  the  small  ones,  to 
$275  for  the  larger  ones,  not  including  the  power  to 
operate  them.  So  far  as  experience  has  gone,  the  great 
objection  to  the  graders  is  that  they  do  not  sort  out  the 
bad  or  deformed  specimens.  This  means  that  at  the 
feeding  hopper  someone  must  pick  out  the  bad  fruit, 
or  culls,  as  they  are  fed  through,  or  the  fruit  must  later  be 
graded  from  the  compartments. 

One  particular  brand  of  machine  has  a  revolving  brush 
in  the  hopper  which  is  supposed  to  clean  off  any  dust 
or  dirt  that  may  be  on  the  fruit.  This  is  always  done 
with  citrus  fruit  but  is  usually  not  required  in  grad- 
ing apples.  On  the  whole,  mechanical  graders  are 
worthy  of  considerable  study,  and  probably  in  the  near 
future  will  be  so  perfected  as  to  become  a  standard  part 
of  the  equipment  of  large  commercial  orchards. 


CHAPTER  III 

FRUIT  PACKAGES 

Packages  versus  Bulk. — The  old  system  of  selling 
fruit  in  bulk  is  no  longer  permissible.  In  some  few 
instances  it  is  still  done,  but  in  most  fruit-growing  sec- 
tions it  is  prohibited  by  either  custom  or  law.  Not 
many  years  ago  when  the  farmer  went  to  the  grocery 
store  to  buy  his  sugar  or  flour,  it  was  dished  out  to  him 
from  a  barrel  which  was  always  standing  more  or  less 
open  and  not  infrequently  became  a  general  collector 
of  dust  and  dirt  for  a  long  time.  This  is  no  longer 
practiced  and,  indeed,  ought  not  to  be.  Everything  now 
is  put  up  in  small  packages  which  are  sold  as  a  part 
of  the  contents.  Occasionally,  you  will  see  dried  apples, 
prunes,  raisins,  etc.,  on  the  market,  sold  in  bulk,  but 
for  the  most  part  this  is  dispensed  with,  and  probably 
in  a  few  more  years  none  can  be  had,  at  least  at  retail, 
except  in  closed  packages. 

Gift  Packages. — The  tendency  of  the  time  is  to  use 
gift  packages.  These  must  be  considered  as  a  part  of 
the  cost  of  marketing  the  fruit  and  charges  or  calcula- 
tions made  to  cover  this  cost.  In  some  instances  where 
growers  cater  to  a  private  trade,  the  packages  are  col- 
lected and  used  over  again,  but  where  shipments  are 
made  the  packages  go  with  the  fruit. 

Requirements  of  Fruit  Packages. — There  are  several 
considerations  to  be  made  in  the  selecting  of  a  fruit 

40 


FRUIT   PACKAGES 


41 


package.  Custom  has  established  some  packages  as 
standard,  and  laws  have  established  others,  but  most 
of  them  ought  to  conform  to  some  well-recognized  stan- 
dard. First,  they  must  be  cheap  because,  being  a  gift 
package,  it  is  not  good  judgment  to  spend  too  much 
money  upon  the  container  of  the  fruit.  Second,  they 
must  be  light  because  freight  rates  are  high  on  most  of 
these  packages  and  any  unnecessary  weight  will  only 


Fig.   28.— GIFT  PACKAGES 

a — 14-quart  peach  basket,   round  covers;    b — same,   muslin   covers;    c — 

1-bushel  hamper,  plain;   d — 1-bushel  hamper,  braced;   e — 1-bushel 

peach  basket;  / — */2 -bushel  peach  basket. 

add  to  the  cost  of  shipping  or  handling.  Third,  they 
must  be  convenient  not  only  from  the  packer's  stand- 
point but  from  the  shipper's  and  consumer's  standpoint 
as  well.  They  ought  to  be  easy  to  load  on  wagons  or  on 
freight  cars;  they  ought  to  be  easy  to  handle  on  the 
retail  market  and  also  convenient  for  a  purchaser  to 
carry  home  or  use  in  the  home  after  once  received. 
Some  of  the  more  perishable  fruits  are  carried  home  by 
the  consumer  and  placed  immediately  into  refrigerators. 


42  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

Hence,  ungainly  or  unsightly  packages  could  not  be 
used. 

All  of  these  points  must  be  considered  and  every  pos- 
sible step  made  to  improve  the  convenience.  Fourth, 
packages  must  be  durable.  While  they  are  made  as 
light  as  possible,  they  should  not  be  so  frail  that  many 
of  them  reach  their  destination  in  a  smashed  or  broken 
condition.  This  ruins  the  fruit  and,  of  course,  reduces 
the  sale  price  of  the  product.  Fifth,  and  last,  the 
packages  must  be  sanitary.  This  is  of  growing  impor- 
tance at  the  present  time  and  is  justly  so  considered. 
As  the  amount  of  fruit  consumed  in  large  cities  grows 
greater  each  year,  more  consideration  must  be  given  to 
have  this  reach  the  buyer  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

The  ideal  package  then,  is  clean,  and  neither  old  nor 
soiled  in  any  way,  is  not  ornamented  or  decorated  with 
colored  cloth  or  paints  that  might  poison  the  fruit,  and 
every  possible  precaution  is  taken  to  get  wholesome 
fruit  to  the  consumer.  Much  can  be  said  in  regard  to 
the  handling  of  fruit  and  vegetables  in  the  large  cities. 
Hucksters,  push-carts,  fruit  stands  and  delivery  wagons 
are  frequently  not  of  the  best  sanitary  type  and  the 
consumer  needs  to  be  warned  or  the  condition  alleviated 
by  legislation. 

The  Kinds  of  Packages. — The  size  and  kinds  of 
packages  vary  greatly  in  different  sections  of  the  country 
and  so  far  little  effort  has  been  made  toward  standard- 
izing the  sizes  of  packs  in  the  different  states  and  in 
many  cases,  different  parts  of  the  same  state.  Apples 
are  usually  shipped  in  barrels  or  boxes.  Barrels  are 
the  oldest,  have  been  used  the  longest,  and  are  most  used 
in  the  Eastern  states.  Barrels  have  been  discarded  in 


FRUIT  PACKAGES  43 

the  Western  states,  and  now  practically  no  apples  are 
shipped  in  barrels  from  west  of  the  Mississippi.  Boxes 
have  been  found  to  be  more  convenient  for  the  western 
trade,  and  are  cheaper  and  easier  to  handle.  It  is  pre- 
dicted that  in  a  few  years  barrels  will  be  displaced 
altogether  by  the  standard  apple  box.  All  the  citrus 
fruit  from  both  the  South  and  West  is  shipped  in  boxes. 
Pears  and  quinces  are  shipped  in  both  boxes  and  bar- 


Fig.  29. 

a — Standard  orange  box,  12  x  12  x  27  ins.;  b — Pineapple  crate, 
12  x  1034  x  36  ins. 

rels,  depending  upon  whether  grown  in  the  East  or 
"West,  the  West  using,  for  the  most  part,  the  standard 
box. 

For  the  more  perishable  fruits  like  peaches,  plums, 
apricots,  etc.,  baskets  of  some  kind  are  used.  These 
baskets  are  of  widely  varied  types.  Most  of  them,  how- 
ever, are  splint  baskets  made  of  hard  wood,  and  the 
smaller  ones  are  crated  in  some  kind  of  a  box  container 
for  ease  in  transportation.  The  Western  people  prefer 
the  small  two-  or  four-quart  baskets  shipped  in  box  con- 
tainers. Many  of  the  Central  and  Eastern  states  ship 
direct  to  market  in  baskets  of  one-sixth,  one-half  or 
one  bushel  measure.  Small  fruit,  with  the  exception 
of  cranberries,  is  almost  invariably  shipped  in  quart  or 


44  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

pint  boxes.  These  boxes  are  various  in  type  and  make, 
and  are  shipped  in  various  sized  containers.  The  con- 
tainers range  from  8,  16,  24,  32  to  even  64-quart  sizes. 
Cranberries  being  a  very  hard  fruit,  are  almost  always 
shipped  in  boxes  or  barrels.  Grapes,  for  the  most  part, 
are  packed  in  small  splint  baskets  or  individual  baskets. 
Those  used  in  the  West  carry  six  pounds  net  and  are 
crated  in  four  box  carriers.  The  individual  baskets 
from  the  Central  or  Eastern  states  are  quite  popular 


Fig.   30. 
a — 20-pound  grape  basket;  b — 8-pound  grape  basket. 

and  make  a  neat  package  for  the  consumer  to 
carry  home.  For  the  larger  grape  industries  in  wine- 
making  or  grape  juice  factories,  they  are  usually  shipped 
by  the  carload  either  in  32-quart  hampers  or  in  50- 
pound  lug  boxes.  These  hampers  or  boxes  are  usually 
returned  to  the  grower  for  use  over  again. 

Standard  Sizes  for  Fruit  Packages. — Most  of  the 
states  have  adopted  standards  in  weights  and  measures 
for  the  various  kinds  of  fruits,  but  only  two  or  three 
have  passed  laws  regulating  the  size  of  the  packages 
for  fruits  such  as  apples,  pears,  peaches,  etc.  Most  of 
the  present  fruit  packages  are  the  result  of  various  tests 


FRUIT    PACK  AC.  KS 


45 


and  trials  from  different  shipping  localities.  Those  that 
have  been  found  efficient  on  the  general  market,  have 
survived,  while  those  that  have  not,  disappeared. 

Out  of  these  almost  innumerable  kinds  and  types  of 
packages  have  come  two  or  three  which  are  now  recog- 
nised in  most  states  as  standard.  Especially  is  this 
true  for  the  larger  fruits  such  as  the  apple  and  the 


Fig.  31.— BASKET  CONTAINERS 

G — Standard  square  quart  berry  basket;  b — Standard  square  pint  berry 
basket;  c — Standard  oblong  pint  berry  basket;  d — Paper  boxes;  c — 6-pound 
peach  baskets. 

pear.  Regarding  apple  packages,  the  Western  states 
have  taken  the  lead  in  the  adoption  of  a  standard  box, 
but,  up  to  date,  have  not  enacted  laws  to  enforce  their 
use.  The  different  fruit-growing  organizations  have 
largely  adopted  these  standardized  packs  and  no  regu- 
lative law  from  the  state  has  been  necessary  to  enforce 
their  use.  The  United  States  has  recently  passed  a  law 


46  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

defining  what  a  standard  apple  barrel  shall  be,  but  they 
have  not  gone  far  enough  to  include  in  their  law  a 
standard  apple  box.  Laws  and  customs  of  the  various 
states  so  far  as  standard  packages  for  apples  are  con- 
cerned, are  very  similar.  These  laws  are  summarized 
for  the  information  of  the  reader. 

Regarding  the  standard  sizes  of  apple  barrels,  the 
Maine  law  requires  the  length  of  staves  to  be  28% 
inches,  the  diameter  head  17Vs  inches,  the  distance  be- 
tween heads  26  inches,  the  circumference  at  bulge  64 
inches,  and  the  capacity  7,000  cubic  inches.  The  New 
York  law  is  the  same.  By  the  Missouri  law  the  length 
of  the  staves  is  28%  inches,  the  diameter  head  17*4 
inches,  the  center  diameter  20%  inches,  and  the  chines 
%  inches.  The  Canada  law  states  that  the  distance  be- 
tween heads  shall  be  26*4  inches,  the  diameter  head  17 
inches,  the  inside  diameter  18%  inches,  and  the  capacity 
96  quarts.  The  United  States  law  is  the  same  as  the 
Maine  law. 

By  the  Maine  law  apple  boxes  shall  be  10%  x  11%  x 
18  inches  inside  measurement,  and  have  a  capacity  of 
2,350  cubic  inches.  The  New  York  law  is  the  same. 
Canada  requires  the  boxes  to  be  10  x  11  x  20  inches  in- 
side measurement,  while  the  Pacific  Coast  associations 
have  10%xll%xl8  inches  inside  measurement  as  a 
standard,  and  10  x  11  x  20  inches  as  a  special  size. 

It  will  be  noted  from  the  foregoing  figures  that  Mis- 
souri is  the  only  state  that  has  a  law  on  standard  apple 
barrels  which  differs  in  any  particular  from  the  United 
States  law.  This  was  originally  made  to  conform  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  common  flour  barrel  and  does  not 
differ  sufficiently  in  any  of  its  dimensions  but  what  its 


FRUIT   PACKAGES  47 

use  is  permissible  in  Maine  or  in  New  York.  In  fact, 
it  is  quite  common  to  see  apples  shipped  in  either  of 
these  states  in  flour  barrels. 

The  laws  of  the  state  of  Maine  read :  '  *  The  standard 
apple  barrel  shall  contain  7,000  cubic  inches,  provided, 
however,  that  the  dimensions  as  given  above  shall  consti- 
tute a  legal  barrel. ' '  It  so  happens  that  this  legal  barrel 
does  not  usually  contain  the  7,000  cubic  inches  any 
nearer  than  does  the  common  flour  barrel,  as  either  one 
will  pass  readily  as  a  standard  apple  measure. 

In  regard  to  apple  boxes,  only  two  sizes  have  been 
recognized  in  the  United  States.  The  standard  apple 
box  which  corresponds  with  the  dimensions  required  by 
the  laws  of  the  States  of  New  York  and  Maine,  and  the 
special  box  which  is  the  one  required  by  the  laws  of 
Canada. 

Western  people  have  been  using  this  Canadian  box 
for  a  number  of  years  and  it  has  become  known  in  that 
country  as  the  "special  apple  box."  Hence,  the  con- 
fusion of  terms  we  sometimes  hear:  The  box  that  is 
standard  in  the  United  States  is  a  special  box  in  Canada 
and  our  special  box  is  the  standard  Canadian  one.  Oc- 
casionally we  find  half  boxes  in  use,  but  these  are  almost 
always  marked  in  terms  of  a  standard  box  and  they  are 
well  understood  by  the  general  trade. 

Package  Material. — A  number  of  different  woods  are 
used  in  making  apple  barrels.  In  most  cases  the  staves 
are  made  of  pine  or  spruce  or  some  of  the  other  soft 
woods.  They  are  cut  by  machinery  and  have  to  be 
shaped  afterwards.  Some  of  the  material  that  goes  into 
the  more  fancy  barrels  is  planed,  but  the  more  common 
apple  barrel  is  left  in  the  rough  as  it  comes  from  the 


48  AIODKKX    FRUIT    .MARKETING 

machine.  There  are  five  different  kinds  of  hoops  used 
on  the  common  apple  barrel:  The  sawed  hoop,  the 
shaved  hop,  the  split  hoop,  the  iron  hoop  and  the  wire 
hoop.  All  of  these  are  used  more  or  less  satisfactorily, 
but  either  the  iron  or  the  sawed  one  is  recommended  as 
making  the  strongest  and  best  appearing  barrel. 

Standard  boxes  are  almost  always  made  of  some  kind 
of  pine  or  spruce,  occasionally  linden  or  cottoiiwood 
boxes  are  seen,  but  these  are  not  generally  satisfactory. 


...r;rt* 


Fig.   32.— VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  FRUIT  PACKAGES  MADE 
FROM  VENEER 

On  the  Pacific  Coast,  a  good  many  boxes  are  made  out 
of  red  wood,  especially  for  the  fruit  that  is  packed  for 
the  cheaper  trade.  Box  material,  as  a  rule,  is  cheaper, 
easier  to  handle,  and  for  equal  bulk  compares  very 
favorably  with  the  cost  of  the  apple  barrel. 

Small  fruits  like  berries  are  almost  always  in  pack- 
ages made  from  hard  wood.  The  small  splint  baskets 
are  usually  cut  from  veneer.  Practically  all  of  the 
quart  or  pint  baskets  and  many  of  the  larger  splint 
baskets  are  made  of  this  veneer  (Fig.  32),  which  is  cut 


FRUIT   PACKAGES 


49 


from  hard  wood. 
Pine  or  soft  wood 
does  not  easily 
work  up  into  ve- 
n  e  e  r .  Most  of 
these  small  bas- 
kets are  put  in 
larger  containers 
or  crates,  and 
very  often  these 
containers  are 
constructed  of  ve- 
neer wood.  These 
are  not  the  best 
kind  of  contain- 
ers, however,  be- 
cause they  soon 
warp  and  get  out 
of  shape  and  can 
seldom  be  repair- 
ed. Those  con- 
tainers made  of 
substantial  soft 
pieces  are  usually 
considered  the 
best. 

Handling  o  f 
Package  Materi- 
al.— There  has 
been  in  the  past 
considerable  wor- 
ry over  the  best 


Fig.  33.— A  FORM  FOR  SETTING  UP 

APPLE  BOXES 

End  pieces  on  left.     Sides  on  right.     Bottoms  and 
cleats  on  rack  in  center. 


Fig.   34.— MAKING  APPLE  BOXES 


50 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


means  of  handling  barrels  and  boxes.  Almost  all  of  the 
standard  boxes  are  now  shipped  in  the  shook  and  set  up 
on  the  farm  or  in  the  packing-house  where  used.  When 
contracting  for  shooks  for  boxes  the  specifications  must  be 
made  specifically  and  uniformity  insisted  upon.  The  di- 
mensions for  the  pieces  of  a  standard  box  are  as  follows : 
Ends,  %  x  lQi/2  x  ll1/^.  inches  in  one  piece ;  sides,  %  x 
inches  in  one  piece;  top  and  bottom,  14  x 


Fig.   35.— STANDARD  APPLE  BOX   CONSTRUCTION 
a — End  view.    Method  of  nailing;  b — bottom  or  top.    Method  of  spacing. 

5  x  191/2  inches  in  two  pieces,  and  cleats,  */%  x  %  x  10 
inches  in  two  pieces. 

The  top  and  bottom  pieces  may  be  made  in  three 
pieces  instead  of  two,  if  desired.  It  is  necessary  to  have 
these  pieces  thin,  so  they  will  spring  over  the  bulge  and 
not  injure  the  fruit.  In  setting  up  the  boxes  the  only 
precaution  is  to  have  the  top  and  bottom  pieces  equally 


FRUIT  PACKAGES 


51 


Fig.  36.— TOOLS  FOR  BARREL  MAKING 

a — Chamfer  knife  for  cutting  the  bevels  on  barrel  staves;  b — Crozer  for 
cutting  grooves  in  the  staves  for  the  head. 

spaced,  and  allow  for  spring  inside  of  the  side  pieces. 
(Fig.  35.)  The  nails  used  are  four-penny,  cement-coated, 
wire  ones. 

A  great  many  of  the  barrels  are  still  set  up  in  the 
factory  and  shipped  or  hauled  to  the  place  where  used. 
A  grower  can  easily  set  up  the  apple  box,  but  it  re- 
quires some  outlay  or  expense  for  equipping  a  shop  to 
set  up  a  standard  barrel.  This  has  led  to  the  establish- 
ing of  a  great  number  of  cooper  shops  all  through  the 
apple-growing  sections.  Barrel  material  is  becoming 
more  scarce  each  year  and  it  is  getting  difficult  to  get 
a  decent  apple 
barrel  without 
paying  almost 
prohibito  ry 
prices.  A  small 
outfit  that  can  be 
used  on  the  farm 
to  set  up  barrels 

will     cost     about      Fig.  37.— A  SET  OF  TRUSS  HOOPS  USED 
$25  or  $30.     One  IN  SETTING  UP  A  BARREL 


52 


MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 


will  need  to  have  a  special  heater  to  use  in  bending  the 
staves.  Certain  companies  are  manufacturing  these 
small  outfits  for  about  $25  for  a  complete  set. 

It  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  properly  make  a  barrel  if 

the  tools  (Figs.  36  and 
37)  necessary  are  had, 
and  the  saving  in  the 
cost  of  material  over 
the  barrel  already  set  up 
will  be  from  10  to  14 
cents  a  barrel.  A  good 
barrel  in  the  Eastern 
states  costs  from  30  to 
40  cents.  The  materials 
for  making  such  a  barrel 
will  cost  from  20  to  30. 
Whether  the  individual 
fruit  grower  can  afford 
to  set  up  his  own  barrels 
will  depend  largely  upon 
his  ability  to  arrange 
the  time  and  labor 
problems. 

A  barrel  ought  not  to 
be  set  up  very  long  be- 
fore being  used.  They 
ought  not  to  be  made  in 
the  winter  time  and  then 
held  over  until  the  next 
fall  unless  carefully 

stored  to  prevent  weathering  or  discoloring.  This  would 
mean  that  the  barrels  are  to  be  made  at  a  time  when 


Fig.  38.— FORM  FOR  SETTING  UP 

A  BARREL 

The  lower  chine  and  quarter  truss  hoops 
in  position. 


FIU'IT    PACKACIKS  ;,;; 

weather  conditions  are  unfit  for  outdoor  work  just  pre- 
ceding the  harvesting  period.  Whether  or  not  a  grower 
is  to  make  his  own  apple  barrels  will  depend  upon 
local  conditions.  If  the  barrels  have  to  be  shipped  by 
railroad,  they  consume  a  great  deal  of  space  and  the 


Fig.    39.— WINDLASS    AND    ROPE 

For  tightening  up  the  staves  to  receive  the  chine  truss-hoop.      This  is  dor.c 
after  the  heating  so  the  staves  will  bend. 


freight  rates  are  almost  excessive,  while  if  shipped  in 
the  staves  they  occupy  much  smaller  space  and  are  much 
more  easily  handled. 

In  setting  up  the  standard  apple  barrel,  the  staves 
are  first  put  into  a  form  (Fig.  38)  supporting  the  truss 
hoops — a  wide  one  and  then  a  narrow  one.  When  the  form 
is  complete  they  are  then  tightened  up  by  the  wind1. acr; 
(Fig.  39)  and  placed  over  the  heater.  When  they  arc 
sufficiently  heated  to  allow  them  to  bend,  they  are  tight- 


54  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

ened  up  until  the  other  truss  hoop  will  go  on.  The  barrel 
is  taken  out  of  the  form,  the  hoops  measured  (Fig.  40) 
and  nailed  (Fig.  41)  and  pushed  down  over  the  truss 


Fig.  40. 
Measuring  for  size  of  hoop. 


Fig.   41. 

Special   vise  with   foot-lever   for 
nailing  hoops. 


hoop  (Fig.  42).  The  two-quarter  hoops  are  put  on  first; 
then  the  chine  hoops.  "When  the  second  chine  hoop  is  in 
place  the  head  is  put  in  (Fig.  43)  and  the  first  chine 
hoop  put  on.  It  requires  from  10  to  20  minutes  for  an 
expert  to  put  up  a  barrel. 


FRUIT  PACKAGES  55 

Special  Packing  Material. — Most  all  of  the  standard 
fruit  packages  call  for  certain  other  accessories  which  it 
is  advisable  to  use  with  them.  For  example,  in  the 


Fig.  42.  Fig.  43. 

The  quarter  hoop  is  pushed  down  Placing    the    head,    with    quarter 

over  the  chine  truss-hoop  and  tight-      hoop  in  position, 
ened. 

barrel  there  are  paper  liners  that  are  put  around  the 
inside  of  the  barrel,  and  corrugated  caps  to  put  on  the 
ends.  The  latter  are  supposed  to  keep  the  fruit  from 
bruising.  Then,  on  top  of  these  caps  are  sometimes 


.->(>  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

used  lace  circles  which  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  the 
barrel  when  exposed  for  sale.  There  are  also  a  number 
of  so-called  winter  cushions  or  basket  cushions.  These 
go  upon  the  top  of  the  barrel  or  basket  to  prevent  the 
fruit  from  getting  crushed  and,  to  some  extent,  protect 
against  winter  injury.  These  cushions  are  little  used 
and  their  expense  for  other  than  the  most  fancy  fruit 
would  make  them  prohibitive. 

For  box  packing,  there  are  the  box  liners,  the  layer 
boards  which  are  pasteboard  pieces  to  go  between  the 
layers  of  apples  when  no  wraps  are  used,  and  the  tissue 
wraps  which  cover  the  apples.  The  tissue  wraps  are 
of  two  or  three  different  grades,  but  the  light  tissue  is 
usually  put  on  fruit  that  has  no  stems,  while  the  heavy 
tissue  is  used  on  apples  and  pears,  where  there  is  danger 
of  the  stem  penetrating  the  paper. 


CHAPTER  IV 

FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS 

Packing  Apples  in  Barrels. — The  operation  of  packing 
apples  in  barrels  is  not  a  difficult  one  if  everything  is 
arranged  for  convenience  in  doing  the  work.  Two  or 
three  barrels  are  provided  within  easy  reach  of  the 
packing  table.  These  are  to  accommodate  the  different 
grade!  or  sizes  of  fruit.  If  many  of  the  apples  are 
bad,  the  lot  is  gone  oyer  previous  to  the  packing  and 
the  culls  thrown  out.  It  is  customary  to  do  the  sizing 
during  the  process  of  packing,  but  it  ought  not  to  be 
necessary  for  the  packer  to  look  for  worm  holes,  bruises, 
etc.  This  should  be  done  beforehand. 

Preparing  the  Barrel. — As  the  barrels  come  from  the 
cooper  shop,  both  ends  are  headed  up.  One  end  is 
selected  for  the  face  of  the  barrel  and  the  other  head 
removed.  The  first  operation  is  to  nail  in  the  head. 
This  is  done  by  nailing  through  the  first  hoop  into 
each  piece  of  the  head  (Fig.  44).  "Where  there  are  more 
than  two  pieces,  six  to  eight  nails  will  be  necessary  to  hold 
them  properly.  The  two-quarter  hoops'  are  next  securely 
nailed  (Fig.  45).  If  the  barrels  are  intended  for  foreign 
shipment  these  are  given  considerable  attention.  The 
shipping  of  fruit  long  distances  has  the  tendency  to 
spread  the  barrel,  and  if  the  hoops  slip  or  expand,  the 
fruit  arrives  at  its  destination  in  a  "slack  pack." 

57 


58 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


On  the  foreign  market  considerable  fault  has  been 
found  with  these  ''slacks."  The  fruit  becomes  bruised 
in  transit  and  from  25  to  75  cents  is  deducted  from  each 
barrel  because  of  this  condition.  The  quarter  hoops  are 
driven  down  tightly  and  then  securely  nailed  with  three- 
penny wire  nails,  using  two  or  three  to  the  hoop,  being 


Fig.   44. 

Nailing  in  the  head  of  the  barrel 
before  packing. 


Fig.   45. 

Nailing  the  quarter  hoops.  The 
chine  hoops  are  not  nailed  until 
head  is  in  place. 


careful  to  have  them  thoroughly  clinched  inside.  In 
nailing  in  the  head,  four-penny  box  nails  are  considered 
the  best. 

Before  putting  any  fruit  in  the  barrel  the  corrugated 
caps,  lace  circles  or  barrel  liners  are  put  in  place  if 
they  are  intended  to  be  used.  The  corrugated  or  rough- 
ened part  of  the  cap  is  put  down  on  the  wood  and  then 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS 


59 


the  lace  circle  on  top  of  this.  It  is  well  to  use  some 
kind  of  paper  to  keep  the  fruit  from  coming  in  direct 
contact  with  the  wood,  but  the  use  of  the  fancy  lace 
circle  or  more  expensive  cap  is  not  customary  except 
for  the  very  finest  grades.  Sometimes  customers  request 
the  use  of  these  special  packing  materials,  and  in  such 
cases  they  should  always  be  used. 

Facing  the  Head. — This  is  an  important  operation 
and  is  accomplished  with 
considerable  care.  The 
packer  will  learn  how 
many  apples  will  be  re- 
quired of  any  given  size 
to  make  one  layer  over 
the  end  of  the  barrel.  He 
selects  sufficient  of  these 
from  the  grading  table, 
being  careful  to  get  uni- 
form specimens  both  in  size  and  color.  They  are 
put  into  a  swing-handled  basket  and  emptied  into  the 
bottom  of  the  barrel.  The  packer  then  reaches  in 
and  arranges  these  apples  in  a  circle  around  the 
bottom,  placing  the  stems  down.  If  the  stems  are 
so  long  that  the  apple  rides  over  them,  they  are  cut  off 
by  a  special  stemming  tool.  This  resembles  a  small  plier 
and  can  be  purchased  from  orchard  supply  houses. 

There  is  considerable  diversity  in  methods  of  facing 
barrels  throughout  the  various  fruit-growing  sections, 
but  most  of  the  growers  prefer  to  face  two  rows,  the 
second  row  resting  on  the  interspaces  between  the  first. 
This  gives  a  better  appearance  when  the  barrel  is  opened 
for  inspection.  Of  course,  it  is  understood  that  the  end 


Fig.  46. 
A  well-faced  barrel. 


00  MODERN    FRUIT   MARKETING 

of  the  barrel  that  is  filled  first  becomes  the  top  of  the 
barrel  when  the  fruit  is  opened  on  the  market. 

Filling  In. — After  the  facing  has  been  completed  the 
apples  are  then  gently  poured  in  from  the  grading  table 
by  using  the  swing-handled  basket  (Fig.  47  a).  Every 
precaution  is  taken  that  in  this  "filling  in"  process 
the  same  shape,  size  and  color  of  apples  are  used  all 
through  the  barrel  as  are  used  in  the  facing.  The  only 
legitimate  difference  being,  that  for  facing  apples  more 


L 


Fig.    47.—  TOOLS    FOR    BARREL   PACKING 
c  —  Filling  in  basket;    b  —  hoop  tightener;    c  —  sizing  board;   d  —  follower. 


attention  may  be  paid  to  getting  specimens  of  the 
color.  Apples  that  run  uniform  in  size  and  color  all  the 
way  through  the  barrel  will  easily  bring  25  to  35%  more 
than  a  mixture.  The  sizing  can  be  done  during  the  pack- 
ing process  if  there  are  two  or  three  barrels  standing  con- 
venient that  can  be  filled  at  the  same  time. 

Racking  the  Barrel.  —  As  the  process  of  filling  con- 
tinues the  barrel  is  gently  racked  back  and  forth  to  settle 
the  apples  down  as  closely  together  as  possible.  The 
barrel  is  set  on  a  plank  which  is  about  2  inches  less 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS 


61 


in  width  than  the  diameter  of  the  barrel,  and  the  rack- 
ing done  on  this  plank.     It  ought  not  to  be  too  violent 
because  of  danger  in  bruising  the  fruit.     About  three 
rackings  during  the  filling-in  operation  is  sufficient. 
Use  of  the  Follower. — This  tool  is  a  round  piece  of 

§    wood  just  the  size  of  the  head 

of  the  barrel,  lined  with  felt 
on  one  side  and  a  hand  hold 
on  the  other  (Fig.  47  J).  At 
the  last  racking  operation  this 
follower  is  placed  on  top  and 
held  down  firmly  while  the 
apples  are  being  settled.  This 
evens  up  the  top  of  the  barrel 
and  makes  it  easier  for  the 
next  process.  Each  packer  is 
provided  with  one  of  these 
followers. 

The  Tailing  Process.— This 
is  the  arranging  of  the  fruit 
on  the  filled  barrel  so  as  to 
get  an  even  bearing  for  the 
head.  "When  the  last  racking 

is  done  the  top  layer  of  apples  should  come  from  2  to  3 
inches  from  the  top  of  the  barrel.  The  balance  of  this 
space  is  then  filled  in  by  hand,  arranging  the  fruit  with 
the  stems  up  as  near  as  possible  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
facing.  The  tailing  process  is  the  hardest  part  of  the 
entire  packing  operation.  The  apples  ought  to  be  even 
on  top  so  that  when  the  head  is  put  in,  pressure  will  be 
applied  equally  on  all  of  the  specimens. 


Fig.  48. 

A   slack   barrel   from   insufficient 
racking. 


62  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Just  how  high  the  top  layer  should  be  is  a  matter  to 
be  determined  by  experience,  judging  from  the  variety 
of  the  apple.  Soft  apples  will  give  more  than  hard 
ones  without  hurting.  If  the  apples  project  just  about 
even  with  the  top  of  the  barrel,  they  will  be  approxi- 
mately correct  and  then  when  the  head  is  put  on  they 
will  be  pressed  down  the  thickness  of  the  head,  plus 
the  thickness  of  the  chine  of  the  barrel.  If  too  much 


a — Properly    tailed.  b — Careless    work. 

Fig.   49. 

pressure  is  applied  the  apples  will  be  bruised  and  the 
two  top  layers  will  be  practically  ruined  for  commercial 
purposes. 

Heading  the  Barrel. — After  the  fruit  is  placed  on  top 
the  best  that  can  be  done,  the  corrugated  cap  is  put  on, 
if  used,  and  then  the  barrel  head  laid  on  top.  This 
is  gently  forced  into  position  by  a  barrel  press  until  it 
rests  in  the  crozes  and  then  the  hoops  are  driven  in 
place. 

Nailing. — After  the  head  has  been  put  on  it  is  nailed 
fast  through  the  first  hoop  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
face  of  the  barrel  was  at  the  beginning". 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS 


63 


Heading  Presses.  —  There  are  several  different  makes 
of  barrel  headers  on  the  market,  most  of  them  working 
satisfactorily.  Some  of  them  exert  pressure  by  means  of 
a  screw  while  others 
use  a  lever.  The 
ones  that  have  the 
circle  (Fig.  50  b) 
which  exerts  the 
pressure  on  the 
head  is  better  than 
the  long,  flat  piece, 
because  of  the  even 
distribution  of 
pressure  over  the 
end  of  the  barrel. 


ere    the    flat 

'     Fig.  50.—  TWO  TYPES  OF  BARREL  PRESSES 

press  heads  are  b  is  preferable>  as  it  exerts  a  more  even  pressure 

USed     they     often  on  the  barrel  head. 

slip  sideways  and, 

in  the  hands  of  careless  packers,  do  considerable  damage 

to  the  fruit. 

Packing  Fruit  in  Boxes.  —  It  requires  much  more  skill 
and  practice  to  put  up  a  successful  box  pack  than  it  does 
with  barrels.  The  apples  must  be  graded  to  a  more  uni- 
form size  and  more  care  taken  in  every  way.  Boxes 
are  placed  on  the  side  of  the  packing  table  (Fig.  52),  giv- 
ing the  right  height  to  meet  the  convenience  of  the  worker. 
These  boxes  can  be  put  on  either  end  of  the  grading 
table  to  suit  the  packer,  depending  on  whether  he  pre- 
fers to  use  the  right  hand  or  the  left  in  placing  the 
fruit. 

Each  box  is  fitted  with  two  box-lining  papers.     These 


64 


MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 


are  cut  to  fit  the  length  of  the  box  and  lap  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  way  on  the  top  and  the  same  on  the 
bottom.  In  placing  these  papers  in  position  an  extra 
crease  needs  to  be  put  in  to  the  bottom  to  allow  for  the 

spring  when  the  lid  is  put 
on  (Fig.  53).  If  this 
pleat  or  fold  is  not  pres- 
ent, the  spring  of  the  bot- 
tom will  tear  the  paper. 
Occasionally  box  liners 
fitting  over  the  end  as 
well  as  the  sides  will  be 
found,  but  these  are  sel- 
dom used  and  are  not  at 
all  necessary. 

If  the  apples  are  to  be 
wrapped  in  tissue  no  other 
package  material  is  used. 
If  they  are  not  to  be 
wrapped,  the  so-called 
layer  boards  are  used  be- 
tween each  layer  of  apples.  These  keep  the  fruit  in  place 
and  add  to  the  attractiveness  and  appearance  of  the 
pack.  It  is  customary  in  most  fruit  sections  to  use  the 
wraps  in  preference  to  the  layer  boards.  "Where  wraps 
are  used  there  is  not  much  difference  in  the  cost  of  ma- 
terials and  very  little  difference  in  the  time  required  to 
properly  pack  a  box.  Without  doubt  those  in  tissue 
wraps  will  carry  farther  and  "stand  up"  better  for  a 
much  longer  time.  Besides  the  tissues  serve  as  a  cushion 
to  prevent  bruising  in  handling. 

There  being  only  two  sizes  of  boxes  used  for  apples, 


Fig.  51. 
Barrel  lever  press. 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS  65 

it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  pack  all  the  different  shapes 
and  sizes  of  apples  in  these  boxes.  Therefore,  consider- 
able time  and  practice  is  necessary  before  a  packer  be- 
comes efficient.  In  the  larger  orchard  sections  of  the 
West  packing  schools  are  held  where  experts  may  be 
trained  to  do  this  work.  In  fact,  where  cooperative 


Fig.   52.— PACKING  TAP.LE 
Boxes  in  position. 

organizations  are  in  vogue,  growers  are  not  allowed  to 
pack  their  own  fruit  but  the  work  is  done  under  the 
direction  of  the  organization  by  a  corps  of  experienced 
or  licensed  packers.  On  the  side  of  the  box  is  placed  a 
little  arrangement  known  as  a  "paper  hod"  to  hold  the 
tissue  for  convenience  in  the  wrapping  process. 

Terms  Used  in  Box  Packing. — Before  one  can  suc- 
cessfully understand  the  operation  of  packing  apples  in 
boxes,  there  are  several  terms  with  which  he  must  be- 


66 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


come  familiar.  The 
first  one  of  these  is 
the  style  of  pack.  The 
sizes  and  shapes  of 
apples  vary  so  great- 
ly that  to  accommo- 
date them  to  the  same 
size  box,  several  dif- 
ferent methods  of 
placing  them  have 
been  devised  which 
are  designated  as 
packs  or  style  of 
packs.  These  are 
known  respectively  as 

the  straight,  offset  and  diagonal.     (As  shown  in  Fig.  56.) 
In  the  straight  pack,  every  apple  is  directly  above 

or  at  the  side  of  each  other  apple.    Lines  run  straight, 

lengthways,  crossways,  and  up  and  down  in  the  box. 

The  straight  pack  is  very  popular  when  the  apples  are 


Fijf.   53. 
-Correct  folds  in  box  liners. 


Fig.  54.— INCORRECT  FOLDS  IN  BOX  LINERS 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS 


67 


of  the  right  size,  but  only  certain 
standard  sizes  lend  themselves  to 
this  method.  In  the  off-set  pack, 
the  apples  are  laid  in  the  inter- 
spaces of  the  preceding  layer,  re- 
quiring a  half  apple  to  complete 
the  rows  crossways  and  length- 
wise of  the  box.  In  the  diagonal 
pack,  the  apples  do  not  run  in 
straight  lines  across  the  box,  but 
diagonally.  This  pack  is  most 
used  and  lends  itself  to  far  great- 
er varieties  and  types  of  apple 
than  either  of  the  others. 

The  number  of  apples  required 
to  reach  across  the  box  is  known  as  tiers  (Fig.  57  a). 
These  vary  from  2%,  3,  3Vfe,  and  up  to  6  tiers  in  a 
box.  The  number  of  apples  required  to  cover  the  bot- 
tom of  the  box  would  be  known  as  a  layer  (Fig. 


Fig.    54a. 

Box  pack  where  layer-boards 
are  used  instead  of  wraps. 


Fig.   55.— SCHOOL  FOR  INSTRUCTING   ORCHARD   MEN  IN 
FRUIT-PACKING 


68 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


57  & ) .  If  four  apples  would  reach  to  the  top  of  the  box, 
we  would  then  have  a  four  " layer  pack."  The  count 
is  usually  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  box,  and  means 
the  number  of  apples  in  the  package.  This  is  required 
by  most  organizations  and  enables  the  purchaser  to 
know  how  many  apples  there  are  in  the  package. 

In  order  to  get  these  counts  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
in  mind  the  number  of  apples  in  the  length  of  the  box 


Diagonal 


Straight 


Offset 

Fig.  56.— STYLE  OF  PACKS 
Diagonal  pack  is  most  used.     The  others  are  gradually  going  out  of  use, 

as  well  as  in  the  width,  and  since  these  vary  in  the 
different  styles  of  packs,  they  are  usually  designated  by 
two  figures.  In  starting  a  diagonal  pack,  two  apples 
could  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  box  and  then  two  follow- 
ing on  the  spaces  between  these.  This  would  be  known  as 
a  " two- two "  pack  in  width  (Fig.  58  &).  The  same  ar- 
rangement is  followed  regarding  the  number  of  apples 
in  the  length  of  the  box. 

In  order  to  compute  accurately  and  quickly  the  num- 
ber of  apples  in  each  layer,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS 


69 


o — One  tier. 


b — One  layer. 


Fig,  57. 


number  of  apples  in  the  length  of  these  rows.  Most 
places  where  box  packs  are  used  a  table  for  calculating 
the  number  of  fruit 
in  a  box  has  been 
worked  out.  The  one 
following  is  typical  of 
most  of  these  tables. 
Altogether,  for  both 
the  standard  and 
special  box,  there  are 
60  different  arrange- 
ments of  packs.  The 
table  given  includes 
cnly  about  25  of  the 
::iore  common.  New  Fig.  58. 

Can    be      c— 3-3  Offset  pack.     & — 2-2  Diagonal  pack. 


70 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


worked    out    from    a    study    of    those    that    are    here 
given. 


STANDARD  BOX  PACK 


Style        Layers 

Straight  3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
5 
4 
4 
4 


Offset 


Diagonal 


Tier 

3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
5 
3% 

sg 

4V2 
4i/2 
8  3 
3% 
3% 
3% 
4% 
4% 


3 
4 
4 
5 

3  y2         Diagonal 

3% 

3  V2 

3% 

4% 
4% 


Apples 
per  row 
length 

5  —  5 


Apples  Approx.  size 

width        No.  apples       apples  in 
of  pack          per  box  inches 


Straight 


6   —   6 

3 

6   —   6 

4 

7   —   7 

4 

8   —   8 

4 

8  —   8 

5 

3   —  4 

3   —    3 

4  —  4 

3    —   3 

4  —   5 

4   —   4 

5   —  5 

4   —   4 

4  —  4 

2    —   2 

4  —   5 

2    —   2 

5   —   5 

2   —   2 

5  —   6 

2   —   2 

6   —   6 

3   —   2 

6  —   7 

3    —   2 

7  —   7 

3   —   2 

SPECIAL 

BOX  PACK 

7   —   7 

3 

8   —  8 

4 

9  —  9 

4 

10   —  10 

5 

6  —   6 

2    —   2 

6   —   7 

2    —   2 

7  —  7 

2   —   2 

7  —  8 

2   —   2 

7  —  8 

3   —   2 

8   —  8 

3—2 

63 
128 
144 

250 
96 
104 
112 
120 
188 
200 


Filling  the  Box. — When  everything  is  properly  ar- 
ranged for  work,  the  packer  places  the  box  on  the  rack, 
puts  the  paper  hod  on  the  side,  the  liners  in  place,  and 
then  begins  the  process  of  wrapping  and  filling  in.  For 
the  beginner,  this  will  require  considerable  attention  and 
often  a  number  of  attempts  before  a  desirable  pack  is 
worked  out.  Four  or  five  apples  of  the  average  size  may 
be  placed  in  the  box  before  wrapping  and  a  study  made 
of  the  arrangement  which  they  are  likely  to  best  fit. 
After  a  little  practice,  it  can  be  easily  determined 
whether  to  take  a  diagonal,  straight  or  an  off-set  pack. 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS 


71 


For  apples  that  are  almost  round  or  spherical,  little 
attention  will  need  to  be  paid  to  the  way  they  are  placed 
in  the  box,  but  for  the  most  part,  uniformity  is  required 
and  if  the  pack  is  started  with  the  apples  on  end  this 
same  relative  position  should  be  maintained  throughout. 
In  most  places,  what  is  called  the  "side  pack"  (Fig.  60), 
or  as  it  is  sometimes  designated  "cheek  pack"  is  pre- 
ferred. Apples  are  placed  on  their  side  with  the  stems 
projecting  towards  the  side  of  the  box  rather  than 


Fig.    59.  —  £.ND   PACKS 
Desirable  for  very  flat  apples. 


towards  the  end.  When  one  arrangement  is  selected  for 
the  pack,  it  should  not  be  varied  throughout  the  box, 
either  in  regard  to  the  placing  of  the  apples  or  their 
position  on  side  or  end. 

Wrapping  the  Apples.  —  To  do  this  best,  the  paper  is 
taken  in  the  left  hand  with  the  palm  up.  To  facilitate 
the  removing  of  the  paper  from  the  hod  a  rubber  finger- 
stole  is  used.  These  can  be  purchased  at  most  any  drug 
store.  The  apple  is  picked  up  in  the  right  hand,  placed 


72  MODERN    FRUIT   MARKETING 

in  the  left  at  about  the  center  of  the  paper,  then  bring- 
ing both  hands  palm  upward  under  the  apple  the  thumbs 
are  run  around  to  the  top  and  the  apple  is  rolled,  bring- 
ing the  corners  of  the  paper  in  over  the  top.  As  the 
apple  is  being  wrapped,  it  is  moved  towards  the  box  and 
by  the  time  the  wrapping  is  completed,  the  right  hand 
places  the  apple  where  it  belongs  in  the  package. 

In  wrapping  fruit  that  has  long  stems,   the  heavy 


Fig.  60.— SIDE  PACKS  ARE   USED  IN  THE  WEST 

tissue  or  Oregon  wraps  are  best.  The  "wad"  or  heavy 
part  is  placed  over  the  stem  to  prevent  them  from  punc- 
turing the  paper  (Fig.  66)  and  giving  an  unsightly  ap- 
pearance. A  little  practice  in  placing  the  apple  in  the 
proper  position  in  the  hand  will  soon  enable  the  packer  to 
get  the  "wad"  in  the  right  place. 

Requirements  of  a  Good  Pack. — Every  box  is  made 
to  conform  with  certain  well -understood  requirements. 
Outside  of  the  condition  of  the  fruit  itself,  certain  things 


FRUIT-PACKING   OPERATIONS  73 


Fig.  61.  Fig.  62. 

Holding  the  paper  in  the  left  hand,       Slide  the  left   thumb  up,  bringing 
palm  up,  place  the  apple  near  center.  the  paper  up  over  the  apple. 


Fig.  63.  Fig.  64. 

With  both  hands,  palms  together,         Slide  the  thumbs  up  over  the  top, 

slide  the  first  fingers  up  under  the  catching  the  corners  under  the  left 

apple.  thumb, 


74 


MODERN  FRUIT  MARKETING 


are  always  looked  for  by 
the  handler  or  buyer  of 
the  fruit.  In  the  first 
place,  the  packing  must 
be  tight,  so  that  the  apples 
will  not  move  or  -rattle 
about  in  handling.  To 
accomplish  this,  what  is 
generally  known  as  the 
swell  or  bulge  (Fig.  67) 
is  put  on  each  package. 
That  is,  in  filling  the  box, 
the  apples  in  the  center  are 
Fig.  65.  higher  than  those  on  the 

Bring  the  right  hand  from  under,  up      enc[      This  is  USUally  f rom 

over  the  top.  _ 

a  nalr  to  three-quarters  01 
an  inch  higher  in  the  center  than  the  top  of  the  box. 


Fig.    66.— NOT    PROPERLY    WRAPPED 
Stems  should  not  puncture  paper. 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS 


75 


Fig.  67.— BULGE  OX  BOXED  FRUIT 
Left  too  high.     Center  about  right.      Right  too  low. 

"When  the  top  is  nailed  on,  the  spring  of  the  slats  keeps 
the  apples  tight  yet  does  not  exert  enough  pressure  to 
bruise  the  fruit. 

Then  by  making  use  of 
the  cleats  on  each  end, 
the  boxes  can  be  piled  or 
tiered  up  in  storage  or 
shipping  and  the  bulge  in 
the  center  will  not  be  suf- 
ficient to  cause  the  fruit 
to  be  bruised  by  the 
weight  of  the  packages. 
This  swell  is  made  uni- 
form across  the  box  and 
diminishes  gradually  to- 
wards each  end  making  a 
sort  of  a  circle  in  outline. 
At  the  end,  each  apple 
projects  above  the  box  Fte-  68- 

only  about  one-quarter  of       *  ™d  3  ?orreet  ™?r    2aTnd4is^ck' 

Closed  packages  should  not  be  piled  on 
an    inch.       If    more    than,     the  face,  but  always  on  the  side, 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


Fig.    69.— GOOD    ALIGNMENT— GOOD   PACKS 

this,   the   nailing   of   the   tops   will   bruise   the   apples. 

The  alignment  of  the  rows  should  be  straight,  both 
lengthways  and  diagonally 
across  the  package  (Fig.  69). 
This  can  be  accomplished  only 
by  the  use  of  uniform-sized 
apples.  The  papers  are  put  on 
carefully  and  the  "wad"  placed 
over  the  stem,  then  in  case  the 
stem  is  strong  enough  to  tear  the 
paper,  it  will  not  show  through 
in  the  pack. 

Nailing  Device. — Every  pack- 
ing shed  where  boxes  are  used 

Fig.  70.  BAD  ALIGNMENT  Ml  1^1  •  T       -,i 

will  need  to  be  equipped  with  a 

Size  not  uniform,  stems  punc- 
turing paper  nailing   press,      This   is    an   ar- 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS 


rangement  for  putting  on  the  tops  or  covers  of  the 
boxes.  There  are  a  number  of  different  types  of  presses 
on  the  market,  but  the  essential  principle  of  all 
of  them  is  some  kind  of  a  lever  arrangement  which  will 
catch  the  boxes  on  the  ends  and  not  exert  any  pressure 
on  the  fruit  except  what  is  required  to  spring  the  pieces 
of  wood  used  for  cov- 
ers. If  these  catches 
can  be  worked  auto- 
matically by  the  foot, 
they  will  be  much 
more  convenient  be- 
cause it  leaves  both 
hands  free  to  fit  the 
top  and  do  the  nail- 
ing. These  presses 
can  be  made  by  any 
carpenter,  or  they  can 
be  purchased  from 
package  supply 
houses.  Along  with 
each  press  is  used 
what  is  known  as  a 

<kXail  Stripper"  (Fig.  72).  This  is  a  device  for  holding 
the  nails  in  a  convenient  way  for  nailing.  Fine  wires 
are  so  arranged  that  the  nails  are  caught  by  the  head 
and  hang  loose  so  the  nailer  can  easily  grasp  them. 

Rules  in  Packing. — Where  cooperative  organizations 
do  the  packing,  the  grower  is  not  allowed  to  do  anything 
but  pick  and  grade  the  fruit.  In  some  instances  the  fruit 
is  picked  by  [lie  owner  and  carried  direct  to  the  packing- 
house where  experts  grade  and  place  the  fruit  in  the 


Fig.    71. — A   HOME-MADE    BOX 
XAILIXG  PRESS 


78 


MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 


Fig.  71a.— BOX  PRESS  USED  IN  CANADA 


package.  In  other 
cases,  each  grow- 
er has  his  own 
packing  -house 
and  the  organiza- 
tion sends  out  a 
corps  cff  packers 
to  do  the  work  for 
him.  In  such 
cases  the  grower 
i  s  expected  t  o 
provide  all  the 
boxes  and  wrap- 
ping material,  to 
grade  the  fruit, 
and  when  every- 
thing is  ready,  he  notifies  the  organization  and  they  then 

arrange  to  pack  the  fruit. 

A  crew  of  packers  consists  of  four  men  under  the 

supervision  of  a  foreman.    They  go  to  the  packing-house 

of  the   grower  and  proceed  to  pack  the  fruit.     Each 

packer  is  expected 

to    place    his    own 

box    in   position, 

put  in  the  liner  and 

do  the  wrapping 

and  filling  in.     He 

is  not  supposed  to 

pay  any  attention 

to  bruises  or  worms 

or    anything   that 

ought  to  have  been        Fig.  7i&,— WESTERN  BOX  PRESS 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS  79 

done  in  the  previous  grading.  The  sizing  is  done  dur- 
ing the  process  of  filling.  The  foreman  keeps  track  of 
the  packages,  sees  that  the  work  is  properly  done,  nails 
on  the  tops,  and  stencils  on  the  end  the  number  of  apples 
in  the  box  and  the  number  or  name  of  the  grower. 

In  most  cases,  the  packer  himself,  being  licensed  by 
the  organization,  has  his  number  placed  on  the  package, 
so  if  at  any  time  a  box  is  returned  on  account  of  poor 


Figi    72. — "NAIL    STRIPPER" 

work,  the  one  who  is  responsible  for  the  packing  can 
be  forced  to  correct  it  or  pay  for  the  damage.  Each 
packer  sets  off  his  own  box,  and  with  a  pencil  places 
on  the  side  the  number  of  apples  in  the  package.  This 
allows  the  foreman  to  check  them  when  he  places  the 
number  on  the  outside  with  a  rubber  stencil.  "Where 


80  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 


Fig.    73.— EXPERT   BOXERS   AT%WORK   IN    A    WESTERN 
PACKING-HOUSE 

the  packing  is  done  in  a  central  packing-house,  a  little 
more  elaborate  system  of  keeping  records  is  needed. 
This  will  be  discussed  under  the  general  subject  of  co- 
operative organizations. 

Cost  of  Packing  Apples. — It  is  hard  to  get  a  very 
definite  comparison  of  the  cost  of  packing  apples  in 
boxes  or  in  barrels,  but  the  following  figures  will  serve 
as  a  guide  for  the  different  operations:  Making  cal- 
culations on  the  basis  of  three  boxes  equal  to  one  barrel, 
the  relative  costs  would  be  about  as  follows:  Barrels 
cost  from  30  to  40  cents;  the  pasteboard  caps  about  75 
cents  a  100;  circles  about  the  same;  and  the  filling  and 
packing  of  the  barrel  varies  from  10  to  25  cents,  depend- 
ing upon  the  variety.  For  apple  boxes,  the  first  cost 
runs  from  10  to  15  cents,  the  setting  up  1  to  2  cents 
each,  box  liners  15  cents  a  100,  layer  boards  75  cents 


FRUIT-PACKING  OPERATIONS  81 

a  100,  wrapping  paper  35  cents  a  1,000,  and  the  filling 
and  nailing  of  the  boxes  about  5  to  7  cents  each. 

Or  making  comparison  in  another  way,  the  cost  of 
barrels  runs  from  30  to  40  cents;  corrugated  caps,  l1/^ 
to  2  cents;  lace  circles,  1%  to  2  cents;  packing  and  head- 
ing, 10  to  25  cents  or  a  total  of  42 1^  to  69  cents  a  barrel. 
The  cost  of  three  boxes  ranges  from  33  to  48  cents;  the 
making,  from  1  to  2  cents ;  paper  wraps,  10  to  14  cents ; 
paper  box  liners,  1  cent;  filling  in  fruit,  15  to  21  cents 
or  a  total  of  60  to  86^4  cents  for  the  barrel  equivalent. 


2MPPUES 


Fig.    74.— LITHOGRAPHED    LABELS    FOR   BOXES   AND   BARRELS 

Labeling  the   Fruit   Package. — After  the   fruit  has 
been  properly  placed  in  the  package  and  sealed  up,  it 


82 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


must  be  labeled  to  conform  either  to  the  customs  of  the 
markets  or  to  the  requirements  of  the  laws  of  the  differ- 
ent states.  Some  states  are  very  explicit  about  the  label- 
ing, while  others  have  no  law 
governing  the  subject  at  all.  In 
the  State  of  Maine,  the  require- 
ments would  be  about  as  fol- 
lows: 

"  There  shall  be  affixed  in  a 
conspicuous  place  on  the  out- 
side of  the  package  a  plainly 
printed  statement  clearly  stat- 
ing the  size  of  the  package  in 
terms  of  standard  bushel  box  or 
standard  barrel;  the  name  and 
address  of  the  owner  or  shipper 
of  the  apples  at  the  time  of  pick- 
ing; the  name  of  the  variety; 
the  class  or  grade  of  the  apples 
contained  therein,  and  if  grown 
in  Maine,  that  fact  shall  be 
plainly  stated. "  This  law  un- 
doubtedly was  the  result  of  an  effort  to  advertise  certain 
grades  of  Maine  grown  apples.  It  was  discovered  that 
certain  shippers  were  buying  apples  of  other  states  and 
selling  them  as  Maine  grown  apples,  the  reason  given  be- 
ing that  certain  varieties  colored  up  better  and  developed 
better  flavor  in  the  northern  section  of  the  country  than 
they  did  farther  south. 

The  United  States  law  and  that  of  New  York  state 
practically  agree  in  their  requirements  for  branding 
packages.  They  do  not  specify  the  size  of  the  apple  but 


Fig.  75.— MACHINE  FOR 

MARKING  FRUIT 

PACKAGES 

It   prints  all  the  information 
at  one  stroke. 


FRUIT-PACKING   OPERATIONS 


83 


do  require  that  the  package  be  so  labeled  as  to  indicate 
the  minimum  size.  Apples  that  average  2%  inches  in 
diameter  or  above,  should  be  labeled  "Standard  grade, 
minimum  size,  2y2  inches,"  and  this  would  mean  that 
at  least  95%  of  the  apples  contained  in  the  package 
shall  be  2y%  inches  or  more  in  transverse  diameter. 


Fig.    76.— PACKING    SWEET    CHERRIES    IX    CALIFORNIA 


Nearly  all  of  the  Western  fruit-growing  organizations 
have  a  registered  "trade-mark"  or  "brand"  and  each 
grower  is  instructed  to  use  these  standard  marks.  In 
some  sections,  the  grower's  name  and  address  is  put  on 
each  package.  In  other  places  the  growers  have  numbers 
which  are  put  on  each  package  for  identification  pur- 
poses in  case  the  work  is  not  up  to  standard. 

For  the  purpose  of  getting  this  information  on  the 


84  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

outside  of  the  package,  two  methods  are  used:  one  is 
the  so-called  stencil  and  the  other  a  lithographed  label. 
The  stencils  are  cut  from  pieces  of  tin  or  copper  and  the 
label  is  painted  on  through  the  letters  cut  in  the  stencil. 
In  the  case  of  the  lithographed  labels,  a  large  colored 
picture  representing  a  trade-mark  or  brand  is  made 
from  standard  cuts,  then  the  information  about  the  size 
and  grade  is  put  on  this  paper  with  a  rubber  stamp. 

There  is  no  question  among  most  of  the  progressive 
fruit  growers  but  what  the  lithographs  are  the  best. 
They  will  answer  to  a  number  of  different  varieties  of 
fruit  and  are  much  more  attractive  and  also  serve  a 
better  purpose  in  advertising  a  brand  or  grade  of  fruit. 
.These  lithograph  labels  are  made  in  sizes  suitable  for 
both  barrels  and  boxes  and  can  be  variously  printed  to 
meet  the  needs  or  desires  of  the  grower.  In  this  way, 
the  individual  '"trade-marks"  or  special  advertising 
matter  can  be  used  together  with  the  other  information 
required  on  the  package. 


CHAPTER  V 

FRUIT  STORAGE 

The  question  of  storage  of  fruit  has  become  of  vastly 
more  importance  during  the  last  decade  than  ever  before, 
and  each  month  sees  some  new  advancement  or  develop- 
ment along  fruit  storage  lines. 

Objects  of  Storage. — There  are  four  main  reasons 
why  fruit  is  stored: 

(1)  For  family  use. 

(2)  To  ripen  up  before  selling. 

(3)  To  tide  over  periods  of  over-supply. 

(4)  To  prolong  the  period  of  keeping. 

The  first  is  the  oldest  and  longest  in  use  and  consti- 
tutes a  very  important  part.  However,  it  is  pretty 
well  worked  out  by  each  individual  family  and  does  not 
need  to  be  further  commented  on  here. 

The  ' '  ripening-up ' '  of  the  fruit  before  selling  is  an 
important  consideration,  because  fruit  thus  ripened  is 
often  of  better  quality  than  when  left  on  the  trees. 
Certain  varieties  and  kinds  of  fruit  will  keep  only  a 
few  days  while  others  can  be  kept,  under  proper  con- 
ditions, for  months.  Often  the  degree  of  flavor  or  aroma 
developed  in  the  fruit  depends  on  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  ripened.  Each  different  fruit  has  to  be 
studied  in  this  particular  and  treated  in  accordance  with 
its  specific  demands. 

85 


86  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

The  third  consideration  is  of  more  importance  than 
the  others  in  so  far  as  commercial  fruit  growing  is  con- 
cerned. The  term  "over-supply,"  as  here  used,  refers 
not  necessarily  to  the  amount  of  fruit  produced  but 
to  the  quantity  that  is  offered  for  consumption  at  any 
one  time. 

The  terms  "over-supply"  and  "over-production"  are 
often  used  synonymously,  but  incorrectly  so.  There  may 
be  very  much  more  fruit  offered  for  sale  than  the  people 
want  at  any  one  time  and  yet  far  from  a  real  over- 
production. "We  may  say,  in  fact,  that  over-production 
rarely,  if  ever,  occurs,  but  over-supply  is  a  very  fre- 
quent market  condition. 

Most  fruits  ripen  rapidly,  and  are  grown  over  such  a 
large  area  that  it  makes  an  enormous  quantity  that  must 
be  sold  at  one  time.  If  all  of  this  is  rushed  to  the 
large  markets,  there  will  soon  be  offered  for  sale  more 
fruit  than  can  be  consumed.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  some 
well-organized  plan  is  in  vogue  by  which  the  over-supply 
may  be  stored,  then  this  can  be  spread  over  a  much 
longer  time  and  hence  an  over-supply  avoided. 

The  prolonging  of  the  period  in  which  fruit  can  be 
kept  in  good  condition  adds  to  its  commercial  value. 
It  gives  the  consumer  a  wider  range  to  choose  from,  and 
allows  the  use  of  fresh  fruit  the  year  around.  Many 
perishable  fruits  which  normally  would  never  reach  the 
northern  markets  are  now  possible  because  of  the  length- 
ening of  the  keeping  time  by  the  use  of  cold  storage. 

Requirements  of  Fruit  for  Storage. — In  order  to  store 
fruit  to  the  best  advantage,  certain  requirements  are 
necessary:  (1)  Good  fruit.  (2)  Proper  handling.  (3) 
A  control  of  the  temperature.  (4)  A  proper  humidity 


FRUIT  STORAGE  87 

in  the  storage  room.  Only  fruit  that  is  in  a  prime  con- 
dition is  worthy  of  being  stored.  It  ought  to  be  No.  1 
or  fancy  in  every  respect,  containing  no  bruises,  worm 
holes  or  blemishes  of  any  kind. 

In  making  use  of  public  storage,  the  fruit  must  be 
properly  packed  and  sealed,  so  that  when  it  is  removed 
from  storage,  the  packages  will  not  need  to  be  opened 
until  they  reach  the  consumer.  It  is  necessary  also  to 
know  the  temperature,  because  no  fruit  will  keep  well 
unless  the  temperature  remains  even  and  does  not  fluc- 
tuate. In  most  cases  a  lower  temperature  than  the  sur- 
rounding outside  conditions,  is  necessary.  As  the  tem- 
perature runs  down  towards  the  freezing  point,  the 
ripening  processes  of  the  fruit  is  gradually  slowed  up, 
the  decay  organisms  do  not  work  as  rapidly,  and  alto- 
gether, the  length  of  life  or  keeping  qualities  of  the 
fruit  is  greatly  increased.  The  humidity  refers  to  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  air.  This  is  measured  in 
grains  per  cubic  foot  of  space.  When  the  air  is  sat- 
urated or  contains  all  the  moisture  it  will  hold,  it  is 
designated  as  100%  humidity.  Beyond  this  point,  pre- 
cipitations as  rain  or  fog  result.  • 

^lost  fruits  run  high  in  water  content,  varying  from  80 
to  83  or  84%.  If  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  in 
which  the  fruit  is  stored  is  more  than  85%,  the  tendency 
is  for  the  fruit  to  decay.  Moisture  will  collect  on  the 
surface  of  the  fruit  in  drops,  and  forms  ideal  conditions 
for  the  germinating  of  decay  organisms.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  there  is  less  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  than 
in  the  fruit,  there  will  be  a  general  tendency  for  the 
fruit  to  dry  out,  and  hence  become  shrivelled  or  lose 
weight.  Fruit  that  drys  out  in  transit,  loses  in  size  as 


88 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


well  as  in  weight.  This  is  one  of  the  factors  which 
causes  slack  packs  resulting  in  badly  bruised  or  injured 
fruit. 

Kinds  of  Fruit  Storage. — The  most  common  and  the 
oldest  means  of  storing  fruit,  was  a  cellar  under  a  resi- 
dence. This  is  permissible  when  storing  for  family  use, 


Fig.  77.— A   SMALL   FARM   STORAGE   CELLAR,   OR   "DUG-OUT" 

but  for  commercial  purposes,  it  needs  to  be  discouraged. 
Most  cellars  in  the  Northern  states  are  more  or  less 
damp,  they  are  not  well  ventilated,  temperature  cannot 
be  properly  controlled,  and  as  a  result,  the  fruit  does 
not  keep  well  and,  upon  decaying,  endangers  the  health 
of  the  occupants  of  the  resident  above.  The  more  im- 


FRUIT   STORAGE  89 

portant  storage  for  small  farmers  or  fruit  growers  is 
what  is  usually  designated  as  a  "dug-out"  (Fig.  77). 
This  consists  of  a  small  cellar  dug  into  the  side  of  a  slop- 
ing bank.  It  may  be  constructed  simply  as  a  cellar  or  as 
a  basement  under  the  packing-house  previously  men- 
tioned. 

Two  principles  must  be  kept  in  mind  for  this  kind  of 
a  storage  house.     In  the  first  place,  it  must  be  well  in- 


Fig.    78.— SMALL   STORAGE   AND   PACKING-HOUSE 
This  is  built  from  hollow  tile.     The  outside  finish  is  to  be  stucco. 

sulated  against  the  low  temperatures  during  the  cold 
winter  weather.  Secondly,  it  must  be  arranged  for 
proper  ventilation  and  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
room  as  cool  as  possible  without  freezing.  A  small 
cellar  18  x  24  feet  will  easily  accommodate  200  to  250 
barrels  of  apples.  It  can  be  constructed  of  stone  or 
cement  and  lined  with  wood,  leaving  a  ' i  dead  air  space '  ' 
inside  in  which  is  put  some  special  insulating  material ; 


90  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

or  common  building  paper  can  be  used  between  the 
boards  to  protect  the  cellar  against  freezing  from 
outside. 

It  is  best  to  make  the  windows  double,  and  extra 
wooden  blinds  for  the  outside  to  put  on  when  the  tem- 
perature reaches  zero  or  below.  For  controlling  the 
ventilation  in  such  a  house,  a  pipe  is  brought  up  under 
the  floor,  reaching  out  30  or  40  feet  away  from  the  house. 
It  affords  both  drainage  and  an  inlet  for  cold  air.  The 
air  is  brought  in  under  the  floor  and  coming  up  through, 
is  easily  distributed  over  the  bottom.  As  it  gets  warm, 
it  rises  and  is  taken  off  through  an  outlet  in  the  roof. 

If  no  rooms  are  to  be  built  above  the  cellar,  cement  can 
be  used  throughout.  The  outside  walls  can  be  made  of 
stone,  brick,  hollow  tile  or  concrete  as  desired.  Twelve- 
inch  walls  would  answer  if  the  building  was  made  of 
stone,  while  6  to  8  inches  thickness  will  only  be  re- 
quired if  other  materials  are  used. 

Particular  attention  must  be  given  to  drainage, 
Sumps  can  be  made  into  the  air  pipes  to  allow  the 
water  to  run  off.  If  the  soil  is  inclined  to  be  wet, 
seepage  through  the  walls  must  be  looked  out  for. 
Moisture  will  collect  on  the  inside  walls  and  the  humidity 
become  too  high.  It  is  always  best  to  cover  the  inside 
of  the  cement  or  stone  with  some  waterproofing  material. 
A  number  of  such  materials  are  now  offered  by  the  trade. 
Unless  the  soil  is  naturally  very  dry  a  cement  floor  is 
desirable.  This  is  easy  to  keep  clean,  is  durable,  and 
will  keep  the  packages  free  from  dirt  or  soil  marks. 

The  roof  can  be  made  of  reinforced  concrete  4  or  5 
inches  in  thickness,  according  to  the  width  of  the  house. 
Old  railroad  "T"  rails  or  second-hand  2-inch  pipe  can 


FRUIT   STORAGE  91 

be  used  for  the  main  supports.  The  roof  over  the  drive 
in  front  can  be  wood  if  desired. 

To  properly  manage  such  a  storage  house,  the  doors 
and  windows  need  to  be  left  open  during  the  nights 
of  the  early  fall  when  conditions  indicate  frost.  In  the 
early  morning  the  house  is  closed  to  prevent  the  rising 
of  the  temperature  during  the  heat  of  the  day.  If  this 
is  followed  up  conscientiously  during  the  cold  nights, 
by  the  time  the  apples  are  ready  to  be  stored  the  tem- 
perature of  the  cellar  can  be  run  down  to  40  or  45 
degrees.  Later,  by  the  middle  of  October,  a  temperature 
of  35  to  40  degrees  can  be  maintained.  From  then  on, 
during  the  winter,  proper  temperature  can  be  had 
simply  by  adjusting  the  cut-offs  in  the  ventilation. 

Such  a  storage  house  would  cost  from  $300  to  $500 
for  the  material  and  could  be  used  for  either  fruit  or 
vegetables,  fliis  has  proved  very  successful  in  the 
Northern  states,  but  farther  south,  in  the  Atlantic  states, 
or  south  of  the  Ohio  River,  has  not  been  a  very  great 
success.  It  is  only  adapted  for  the  use  of  the  fruit 
growers  of  the  Northern  states  who  have  but  a  few 
hundred  barrels  to  store. 

Local  Cold  Storages. — These  local  storage  houses  are 
usually  too  large  and  too  expensive  for  individuals  to 
own  unless  operating  upon  a  very  large  scale.  They  are 
used  for  the  most  part  by  cooperative  associations  and 
the  small  towns  that  have  only  a  moderate  amount  of 
fruit  to  store.  They  serve  their  best  purpose  in  the 
organizations  and  have  developed  to  such  an  extent  that 
they  are  now  used  in  handling  a  large  share  of  the 
fruit.  Many  organizations  shipping  perishable  fruit 
have  one  of  these  local  storage  houses  near  the  center  of 


92 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


Fig.  79.— LOCAL  COLD  STORAGE 

the  shipping  point  for  the  surrounding  country.  They 
are  often  associated  with  packing-houses,  the  fruit  be- 
ing brought  to  the  central  house  to  pack  and  then  im- 
mediately transferred  to  storage.  Later,  as  the  season 
advances,  the  fruit  is  re-distributed  to  the  larger  centers 
of  population.  Some  of  these  houses  are  used  only  for 
temporary  storages,  simply  to  hold  the  fruit  for  a  short 
time  until  it  can  be  properly  marketed.  Occasionally 
the  fruit  goes  from  these  local  storage  houses  to  the 
larger  public  storages  in  the  centers  of  population. 

Public  Storages. — By  far,  the  most  expensive  and 
most  important  part  of  the  storage  industry  is  the  large 
storage  houses  in  the  big  cities.  These  are  used  not  only 
for  storage  of  fruit  but  also  for  the  storing  of  meat 
products,  vegetables,  eggs,  etc.,  and  in  most  large  cities 
for  the  storing  of  furs  to  keep  during  the  hot  weather 
of  the  summer.  These  fill  a  very  desirable  and  necessary 
place  in  the  economy  of  food  supply,  especially  in  the 


FRUIT   STORAGE  93 

large  cities  where  from  50  to  150  carloads  of  fruit  are 
consumed  every  day.  Without  cold  storage  it  would  be 
impossible  to  supply  a  great  many  kinds  of  fruit  or  any 
one  kind  for  a  very  long  period  of  time. 

For  the  most  part  such  storage  houses  are  operated  by 
capitalists  and  are  usually  incorporated  under  the  laws 
of  some  of  the  states.  They  work  independently,  for 
the  most  part,  of  the  producers,  simply  acting  as  agents, 
agreeing  to  keep  a  certain  temperature  for  a  certain  con- 
sideration and  seldom  acting  as  a  selling  agent  for  the 
owners  of  the  stored  goods.  Such  storage  plants  are 
very  expensive,  costing  at  the  least  $100,000  and  rang- 
ing from  that  up  to  two  or  three  millions. 

Control  of  Temperature. — All  of  the  fruit  storage 
houses  must  be  provided  with  proper  means  of  control- 
ling temperature.  Most  fruits  require  a  low  tempera- 
ture for  keeping.  When  removed  from  the  tree,  this 


Fig.  80.— A  LARGE  PUBLIC  COLD  STORAGE 


94  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

low  temperature  is  more  important  than  any  other  single 
consideration. 

In  the  various  types  of  storages  three  methods  are  em- 
ployed to  regulate  the  temperature:  (1)  Ventilation. 
(2)  Ice  refrigeration.  (3)  Mechanical  cooling  appli- 
ances. The  first,  ventilation,  is  applicable  to  the  small 
cold  storage  cellars  in  the  Northern  states  or  to  the  dug- 
out previously  referred  to.  Ice  refrigeration  is  used 
mainly  in  the  smaller  storage  and  in  the  North  for  the 
larger  ones.  Mechanical  refrigeration  is  used  almost 
entirely  in  the  South  and  in  the  larger  public  storages 
of  the  Northern  and  Eastern  states.  The  cost  of  installa- 
tion between  the  ice  and  mechanical  methods  is  consid- 
erably greater  for  the  latter.  For  small  storage  houses 
up  to  5,000  barrel  capacity  ice  would  probably  be  the 
cheaper.  Above  that  quantity  the  consensus  of  opinion 
among  storage-house  men  is  in  favor  of  the  mechanical 
refrigeration. 

Construction. — The  materials  from  which  a  storage 
house  can  be  built  are  numerous.  For  the  cellars  con- 
structed under  ground,  some  form  of  the  common  hard 
building  materials  is  used,  such  as  stone,  brick,  cement, 
hollow  building  tile,  etc.  Of  these  the  cement  and  brick 
are  more  commonly  used.  Hollow  building  tile,  a  burned 
clay  product  resembling  brick,  is  coming  rapidly  into 
importance,  and  is  considered  more  economical  and  a 
better  protection  against  outside  cold.  For  the  part 
above  ground,  various  materials  are  used  for  insulating 
the  houses  against  the  cold  or  heat  from  the  outside. 
Wood  is  most  commonly  used,  and  for  insulating  pur- 
poses such  material  as  building  paper,  sheet  cork,  felt, 


FRUIT   STORAGE 


95 


Fig.  81.— PRESSED  CORK 


waste  cotton,  mineral  wool,  and  even  shavings  or  saw- 
dust have  been  used  with -good  results. 

Insulating  Materials. — The  construction  of  a  modern 
storage  house  calls  for 
great  care  and  attention 
to  details  of  the  work. 
Carelessness  or  the  use  of 
poor  material  will  often 
result  in  the  inability  of 
the  operators  to  control 
the  temperature  of  the 
house.  All  of  the  differ- 
ent materials  used  in  con- 
struction have  different 
insulating  values.  The  de- 
gree with  which  they  will 
prevent  the  passage  of 
heat  or  cold  is  different 
with  each  material  used. 
For  determining  the  insu- 
lating value  of  the  dif- 
ferent materials,  certain 
units  in  measuring  heat 
have  been  established. 
One  used  in  England, 
and  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent in  the  United  States, 
is  commonly  known  as  the 
British  Thermal  Unit,  or,  as  it  is  usually  written, 
B.  T.  U.  It  means  the  amount  of  heat  required 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water 
one  degree  Fahrenheit.  The  French  and  German 


Fig.   82.— MINERAL  WOOL 


Fig.  83.— FIBER-FELT 


98 


MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 


unit  of  measure  for  heat  is  the  calorie.  This  equals 
the  heat  required  to  raise  one  kilogram  of  water  from 
zero  to  one  degree  Centigrade. 

Then,  in  measuring  the  transmission  of  heat  through 
various  insulating  materials,  calculations  are  based  upon 
the  number  of  B.  T.  U.  that  will  pass  through  one  square 
foot  of  substance  per  hour  per  degree,  difference  in 
temperature  between  the  two  sides  of  the  substance. 
This  enables  definite  experiments  to  be  carried  on  and 


Fig.  84.— CORK  BOARD 


the  insulating  value  of  different  materials  can  be  def- 
initely determined.  Substances  which  allow  heat  to 
pass  through  readily  are  known  as  good  conductors  of 
heat'.  Those  which  retard  the  passage  of  heat  are  poor 
conductors.  Hence,  for  insulating  storage  houses  against 
heat  and  cold  we  always  select  poor  conductors. 

Relative  Heat-Conducting  Power. — From  a  number 
of  experiments  that  have  been  made  both  in  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  the  following  figures  have  been  taken. 

The  relative  insulating  value  of  the  different  ma- 
terials are  based  on  water  as  a  standard.  As  physicists 
use  water  on  a  basis  of  one  for  the  specific  gravity  of 
other  liquids  or  solids,  so  in  testing  for  insulating  value 


Kj      3'  Air   Spaces  [^ 

*  Fiji  Wit},  Cork  or  Mineral  Wool 


6"  Air  S/t>occ~- 

/A  cork  or  mineral 


T-G  Boarj 
Double.  Paper 
T~&  Board 

r*C  Board 
Ooub/e  Papa 
T^G.  Board 

T^G  0oa re/ 
OoubJe  paper 


FO«    EXPOSED   SIDES 


7^6.  8oorJ 
Double.  Paper 
7~*G  Board 

7T*6.  13  oar  d 
Double,  Paptr 
77»G  /3oard 

T.v-O  Board 
r^G.  Board 


4"  Air   - 
i/i  W//"A    CorX   or  Mineral  Wool 


-  O 


Paper 


F0«    8ASCMENT    FLOODS 
Fig.   83.— INSULATION  FOR   COLD   STORAGE  ROOMS 


98  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

of  the  different  materials,  water  under  normal  conditions 
has  been  given  the  value  of  one.  Taking  then,  water  as 
a  standard,  the  other  materials  in  their  relative  insulat- 
ing power  would  be  as  follows : 

Water   1. 

Sand    1.01 

Brick   2. 

Cement   2.25 

Stone   2.95 

Iron    80. 

Copper    455. 

Furs 0.13 

Wood    0.14  to  0.24 

Wool    0.06 

Building  paper    0.05 

Dead  air  space 0.03 

It  will  be  noted  from  these  figures  that  dead  air  or 
confined  air  is  the  best  practical  insulator  against  heat 
or  cold.  The  best  known  insulator  is  a  vacuum.  The 
principle  of  the  common  thermos  bottle  is  simply  the 
insulating  from  outside  temperature  by  the  use  of  an 
almost  perfect  vacuum.  Also,  the  principles  of  the  com- 
mon fireless  cooker  is  a  perfect  insulation  to  keep  the 
heat  confined  to  the  inside  of  the  cooker.  Wood  is  the 
most  common  of  all  insulating  materials,  and  perhaps 
building  paper,  sheet  cork,  and  sawdust  in  the  order 
named  are  of  the  next  in  importance.  As  a  rule,  the 
harder  mineral  substances  are  poorer  insulators  than  the 
vegetable  substances,  and  so  stone,  brick  or  cement  where 
used,  have  to  be  associated  with  some  of  the  better  insu- 
lating materials. 

Method  of  Insulation. — For  the  most  part  the  outside 
of  cold  storage  houses  is  built  of  either  concrete  or  brick. 
These  are  of  sufficient  strength  to  support  the  weight 


FRUIT  STORAGE 


99 


of  the  superstructure  and  to  carry  the  enormous  loads 
of  the  fruit  or  material  stored.  Then  inside  of  these 
structures  are  placed  the  other  insulating  materials  to 
protect  the  fruit  from  fluctuation  in  temperatures.  In 
some  instances  dead  air  spaces  are  used  next  to  the  out- 
side construction,  but  in  most  cases  they  are  filled  with 
sawdust  or  some  other  loose  substance.  Then  the  use 
of  several  layers  of  matched  lumber  interspaced  with 


Fig.   86.— APPLYING   INSULATIONS 

building  paper,  air  spaces  or  sheet  cork  gives  a  poor 
conducting  power  for  the  heat  from  the  outside. 

The  dead  air  spaces  are  at  the  present  time  being  used 
less  than  in  former  years.  "While  their  insulating  value 
is  beyond  question,  yet  it  has  been  proved  by  experiment 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  make  the  dead  air  spaces 
tight  enough  to  prevent  leakage  or  the  circulation  of 
air.  And  where  leakage  occurs,  or  moisture  obtains  en- 
trance, they  rapidly  lose  in  insulating  value.  Another 


100  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

precaution  that  is  necessary  to  consider  is  the  water- 
proofing of  the  outside  walls  to  prevent  moisture  from 
getting  into  the  filler  or  the  papers  used  on  the  inside. 
All  of  the  heavy  work,  stone  and  cement,  is  coated  with 
pitch  or  some  substance  to  make  it  impervious  to 
moisture.  Each  set  of  material  inside  is  also  coated. 
In  addition,  from  the  inside  many  precautions  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  moisture  from  collecting  on  the 
walls  in  sufficient  quantity  to  wet  the  insulating  ma- 
terials. 

Mechanism  of  Cold  Storage. — There  are  two  well- 
recognized  systems  for  cooling  down  storage  houses : 
(1)  Ice  refrigeration,  and  (2)  Mechanical  refrigeration. 
The  cheaper  and  most  common  used  material  is  ice,  espe- 
cially in  the  Northern  states  and  the  smaller  houses.  The 
larger  storage  houses  in  the  big  cities  or  those  of  the 
Southern  states  use  mechanical  refrigeration.  It  is  difficult 
to  give  any  estimate  of  comparative  cost  because  of  the 
wide  variation  in  conditions,  labor,  cost  of  material,  etc. 
As  a  general  rule,  for  small  or  local  cold  storage  houses 
ice  is  considered  the  cheaper,  especially  in  the  Northern 
states  where  ice  can  be  manufactured  in  the  winter  at 
a  low  cost.  Farther  south  it  would  be  necessary  to  make 
the  ice  artificially  and  the  cost  would  be  much  greater 
than  for  mechanical  refrigeration. 

In  the  larger  cities  of  the  East  where  public  storages 
are  common,  the  mechanical  system  is  used  almost  ex- 
clusively and  by  most  operators  is  conceded  to  be  the 
cheapest  and  the  most  economical  to  operate.  Storage 
houses,  up  to  5,000-barrel  capacity,  will  probably  be 
cheaper  to  cool  by  ice  than  by  mechanical  means,  and  the 
smaller  plants  operated  by  cooperative  organizations  are 


FRUIT  STORAGE;  ;  101 

for  the  most  part  cooled  down  by  the  use  of  natural  ice. 

The  Use  of  Ice. — To  give  the  early  history  of  the  cold 
storage  industry  would  be  simply  to  recall  the  trying 
out  of  a  great  many  different  methods  of  using  ice. 
The  entire  business  of  cold  storage  is  not  over  60  years 
old  and  hence  its  evolution  has  been  very  rapid.  The 
first  attempt  to  cool  down  fruit  or  vegetables  by  means 
of  ice,  was  to  place  the  ice  upon  the  floor  of  the  storage 
room.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  this  method  would 
not  be  practicable  because  of  the  undue  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  air  resulting  from  the  melting  of  the 
ice.  Later,  various  ways  were  tried,  such  as  placing  the 
ice  at  the  side  or  above  the  room  to  be  cooled  allowing 
the  air  to  be  first  cooled  down  by  flowing  over  the  ice 
and  later  circulating  through  the  storage  room. 

This  same  principle  is  still  employed  in  the  small  re- 
frigerators so  commonly  used  in  residences  for  keeping 
foods.  The  ice  being  placed  in  the  top  of  the  refrigerat- 
ing box,  the  air  as  it  flows  over  it  becomes  cool  and 
settles  to  the  bottom.  The  warmed  air  rising  again 
passes  over  the  ice  at  the  opposite  side.  This  method  is 
not  practical  for  stored  fruit  or,  in  fact,  is  any  method 
applicable  where  the  air  is  cooled  by  coming  directly 
into  contact  with  the  ice  and  then  distributed  through 
the  storage  room;  the  reasons  for  the  failure  of  this 
method  being  due  to  the  fact  that  the  humidity  cannot 
be  controlled. 

Ice  Brine  System. — The  method  used  almost  exclu- 
sively at  the  present  time  is  what  is  known  as  the  "lee 
Brine  System."  In  this  arrangement,  the  air  does  not 
come  in  contact  with  the  ice  nor  with  the  fruit;  but 
coils  of  pipes  in  which  liquids  circulate  are  first  cooled 


LONGITUDINAL  SECTION 


ROOM 


STORAGE 


ill. 


13 

ROOM    1 


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•ROOM 


ICB    liOOM 


£7 


I=L.OOR. 

Fig.   87.— PLAN   OF   A   SMALL   COLD   STORAGE   PLANT 
In  this  plant  the  ice-brine  system  of  cooling  is  used. 


102 


FRUIT   STORAGE  103 

down  and  then  by  passing  through  the  storage  room  take 
up  the  heat  given  off  by  the  fruit.  In  such  an  arrange- 
ment, it  is  necessary  to  have  two  independent  coils  of 
pipes.  The  one  that  comes  in  contact  with  the  ice  and 
in  which  the  cooling  down  is  done  is  known  as  the 
primary  coil,  and  the  one  that  circulates  through  the 
storage  room  as  the  secondary  coil. 

The  principle  of  this  circulation  is  just  the  reverse  of 
the  hot  water  system  for  heating  buildings.  The  primary 
coil  is  the  one  highest  up  and  as  the  brine  in  the  circu- 
latory system  is  cooled  down  it  becomes  heavier  and 
settles  to  the  bottom.  As  it  circulates  through  the  stor- 
age room  it  absorbs  the  heat  from  the  room  and  expand- 
ing becomes  lighter  and  rises  again,  until  it  reaches  the 
primary  coil.  In  this  way  a  constant  flow  of  the  liquid 
through  the  pipes  keeps  the  air  in  the  storage  room  at 
the  desired  temperature  without  the  bad  effect  of  the 
moisture-ladened  air  coming  into  direct  contact  with 
the  fruit  itself.  In  most  of  these  types  of  storage  houses, 
the  ice  is  harvested  during  the  winter  and  stored  in  an 
annex  to  the  regular  plant.  Then  from  this  supply  the 
ice  is  crushed  as  needed,  elevated  to  the  tank  enclosing 
the  primary  coils,  and  fed  in  as  desired. 

If  the  natural  melting  of  the  ice  does  not  keep  the 
temperature  sufficiently  low,  salt  is  added  to  hasten  the 
melting,  the  theory  of  the  whole  operation  being  that 
the  ice  in  melting  takes  up  the  heat  by  absorption  from 
the  primary  coil,  thus  cooling  down  the  brine  inside. 
The  addition  of  the  salt  to  the  crushed  ice  only  increases 
the  rapidity  of  the  melting ;  hence,  increasing  the  absorb- 
ing power  of  beat  from  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 
Therefore,  the  more  rapidly  the  ice  melts  the  more  rap- 


104  MODERN"    FRITIT    MARKETING 

idly  is  the  heat  taken  up,  and  a  lower  temperature  can 
be  maintained  in  the  storage  room. 

The  cost  of  maintaining-  a  low  temperature  for  the 
storage  of  fruit  is  difficult  to  estimate,  owing  to  the  vary- 
ing local  conditions,  but  for  properly  constructed  and 
insulated  storage  houses  using  the  ice-brine  system,  the 
cost  should  not  exceed  $10  per  1,000  cubic  feet  per 
month.  A  thousand  cubic  feet  will  accommodate  one 
carload  of  produce. 

Cooling  Solutions  Used. — It  is  obvious  that  in  such 
a  system  some  liquid  would  have  to  be  used  which  would 
not  freeze  at  the  ordinary  temperature.  For  this  pur- 
pose two  different  substances  have  been  used.  One  is 
the  common  solution  of  salt  brine;  the  other  is  a  solu- 
tion of  calcium  chloride  in  water.  Salt  solution  was 
the  one  most  used  in  the  earlier  development  of  this 
system,  but  it  is  now  largely  superseded  by  the  calcium 
chloride.  A  saturated  solution  of  salt  and  water  will 
freeze  at  a  temperature  of  about  — 7  degrees  F.,=below 
zero,  while  a  similar  solution  of  calcium  chloride  will 
not  crystallize  under  — 50  degrees  F. ;  hence  the  latter  is 
better  adapted  for  maintaining  a  lower  temperature.  In 
addition  to  this,  the  salt  very  quickly  corrodes  the  pipes 
which  need  to  be  replaced  every  four  or  five  years,  while 
with  the  calcium  chloride  solution  replacing  once  in  ten 
years  is  sufficient.  For  determining  the  proper  density  of 
the  solution  a  common  hydrometer  similar  to  the  one  used 
in  testing  lime  sulphur  solution  could  be  used.  For  a 
salt  brine  solution  a  25-degree  reading  on  the  hydro- 
meter would  be  about  right,  while  for  the  calcium  chlo- 
ride 20  degrees  or  a  little  less  could  be  used. 


FRUIT   STORAGE  1Q5 

Mechanical  Refrigeration. — Space  and  time  will  not 
permit  going  into  this  subject  in  detail,  but  it  seems  best 
to  give  a  general  idea  of  how  cold  storages  are  oper- 
ated under  the  mechanical  systems.  Of  these  there  are 
two  general  types:  the  first  and  older  one  is  known  as 
the  air  compression  system.  This  was  originally  installed 
on  ocean  steamships  where  large  quantities  of  stored 
food  products  had  to  be  carried.  It  consisted  simply  of 
compressing  the  air  under  pressure  until  the  heat  was  re- 
moved and  then  discharging  it  direct  into  the  storage 
room.  As  the  air  expands,  heat  is  taken  up  from  the 
room,  thereby  keeping  the  temperature  lowered. 

This  method  is  still  in  use  in  some  places  but  has 
largely  been  discarded  because  of  the  high  cost  of  oper- 
ation. The  other  method,  and  the  one  now  in  most 
common  use,  is  the  ammonia  compression  system.  In 
this  an  ammonia  solution  is  used  because  it  will  liquify 
under  much  lower  pressure  than  air.  Large  costly  ma- 
chinery of  special  make  is  required  to  operate  such  a 
system. 

Ammonia  Compression  System1. — "The  production 
of  cold  by  this  system  is  accomplished  by  the  expansion 
or  evaporation  of  liquid  anhydrous  ammonia.  The  sys- 
tem consists  of  three  essential  parts,  the  compressor, 
the  condenser,  and  the  expansion  coils. 

The  Compressor. — "The  compressor  is  a  pumping 
engine  especially  designed  to  compress  the  ammonia  gas 
and  force  it  through  the  pipes  of  the  condenser,  under  a 
pressure,  varying  according  to  the  temperature  of  the 
condensing  water  from  150  to  185  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

1  Remington  Machine   Company,   Wilmington,   Del. 


106  MODERN    FRUIT   MARKETING 

The  Condenser. — "The  condenser  is  a  series  of  pipes 
through  which  the  ammonia  gas  is  forced  by  the  com- 
pressor, and  cooled  by  a  constant  supply  of  cold  water. 
The  heat  acquired  during  both  the  expansion  and  com- 
pression of  the  ammonia  gas  is  absorbed  by  the  cold  water 
surrounding  the  pipes,  and  by  the  combined  effect  of  the 
cooling  water  and  pressure  exerted  by  the  compressor, 
the  gas  becomes  liquified,  and  is  then  in  proper  condi- 
tion to  do  the  actual  work  of  refrigeration. 

The  Expansion  Coils. — ''The  expansion  coils  are 
placed  either  in  a  brine  bath  or  directly  in  the  room 
to  be  cooled,  and  the  liquified  ammonia  gas  from  the  con- 
denser is  fed  into  these  coils  by  a  sensitive  valve  reduc- 
ing the  pressure  to  5  to  25  pounds  per  square  inch,  where 
it  rapidly  re-expands  into  a  gaseous  state,  and  by  so 
doing,  absorbs  the  heat  from  the  surrounding  brine  or 
air,  producing  an  intense  cold. 

"The  expansion  coils  are  connected  with  the  suction 
pipes  of  the  compressor,  and  after  the  gas  has  per- 
formed its  refrigerating  work,  it  is  drawn  into  the 
cylinder  of  the  compressor  and  is  again  driven  on  its 
round  of  operation,  the  same  gas  being  used  continu- 
ously. 

Utilizing  the  Cold. — "The  methods  in  practice  for 
utilizing  the  cold  produced  in  this  way  are  the  brine 
system,  and  the  direct  expansion  system. 

The  Brine  System. — "In  the  brine  system  a  tank  is 
used  containing  a  strong  solution  of  brine,  which  is 
cooled  to  a  low  temperature  by  submerging  the  ammonia 
expansion  coils  in  the  brine  or  by  means  of  a  double 
pipe  brine  cooler,  the  chilled  brine  being  circulated 
through  a  series  of  pipes  placed  in  the  rooms  to  be  cooled 


FRUIT  STORAGE  107 

by  means  of  a  force  pump.  For  making  ice,  galvanized 
ice  cans  filled  with  fresh  water  are  immersed  in  the 
brine  tank  to  freeze. 

"The  pipe  system  for  brine  circulation  can  be  made 
up  of  standard  pipe  with  open  return  bends,  the  prac- 
tice being  to  use  pipes  varying  in  size  from  1  to  2  inches 
in  diameter.  The  pipe  system  should  be  divided  into 
sections  containing  not  more  than  400  feet  of  1-inch 
pipe  or  equivalent,  provided  with  valves  or  cocks  and 
connected  to  the  mains,  so  that  each  section  can  be  shut 
off  independently  when  desired. 

"The  location  of  the  pipes  in  the  cold  storage  room 
may  either  be  overhead  or  on  the  sides  of  the  room,  the 
former  position  being  preferable  when  sufficient  height 
of  ceiling  will  permit.  When  rooms  have  been  con- 
structed for  using  ice,  the  pipe  system  can  be  conveni- 
ently placed  in  the  ice  bunkers  overhead. 

"The  quantity  of  pipe  required  for  brine  circulation 
in  cold  storage  rooms  to  produce  the  desired  temperature 
depends  on  the  class  of  goods  to  be  cooled,  the  quantity 
cooled  each  day,  the  size  of  the  room,  the  character  of 
the  insulation,  the  frequency  with  which  the  doors  are 
opened,  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  outside,  etc. 
As  these  conditions  vary  in  almost  every  case,  no  fixed 
rule  can  be  laid  down,  but  it  is  a  good  practice  to  make 
a  liberal  allowance  of  pipe  surface  for  the  duty  required 
when  the  conditions  are  known,  based  on  practical  ex- 
perience embracing  almost  every  line  of  work  to  which 
mechanical  refrigeration  is  applied. 

"The  brine  used  is  ordinarily  made  from  common 
salt,  about  2^4  pounds  of  salt  per  gallon  of  water  will 
make  a  brine  registering  100  degrees  density  on  a 


108  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

salinometer,2  and  which  will  not  freeze  at  zero.  If  a 
temperature  below  zero  is  required,  chloride  of  calcium 
brine  is  used,  a  mixture  of  three  pounds  per  gallon 
will  not  freeze  at  8  degrees  below  zero. 

11  In  the  brine  system  the  large  body  of  chilled  brine 
contained  in  the  brine  tank  and  pipe  coils  is  a  storage 
for  cold,  and  is  a  reserve  that  can  be  used  to  maintain 
the  temperature  desired  in  the  rooms  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time,  by  merely  operating  the  brine  circulat- 
ing pump.  It  frequently  being  only  necessary  to  oper- 
ate the  compressor  during  the  day  to  maintain  the  tem- 
perature during  the  entire  24  hours.  The  ease  with 
which  the  temperature  is  controlled,  and  the  absence  of 
any  danger  from  escaping  ammonia  in  the  rooms  are  the 
principal  features  that  commend  this  system. 

Direct  Expansion  System. — ' '  In  the  direct  expansion 
system  the  ammonia  expansion  coils  are  placed  directly 
in  the  rooms  to  be  cooled,  the  heat  being  absorbed  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  ammonia  in  its  passage  through 
the  pipe  coils  to  the  compressor,  only  one  system  of 
pipes  being  required.  The  expense  of  the  outfit  being 
very  materially  reduced,  as  compared  with  the  brine 
system,  the  brine  tank,  the  brine  pump  and  the  secondary 
system  of  pipes  for  brine  circulation  being  dispensed 
with  and  a  somewhat  greater  efficiency  is  obtained. 

"The  arrangement  of  the  pipe  coils  in  the  cold  stor- 
age rooms  is  the  same  for  direct  expansion  as  for  brine 
circulation,  but  the  valves  and  fittings  must  all  be  of 
special  construction,  and  the  pipes  are  put  up  with  the 
greatest  care  so  as  to  be  absolutely  tight  to  avoid  the 

2  A  salinometer  is  a  hydrometer  graduated  to  show  the  percentage  of 
gait  in  a  solution. 


FRUIT  STORAGE  109 

possibility  of  the  escape  of  ammonia  in  the  cold  storage 
rooms. 

' '  Owing  to  the  lower  temperature  and  greater  rapidity 
of  the  circulation  of  the  ammonia  gas,  only  about  two- 
thirds  the  pipe  surface  is  required  to  produce  the  same 
effect  as  is  necessary  for  brine  circulation. 

"In  the  direct  expansion  system  the  refrigerating 
effect  ceases  upon  the  stoppage  of  the  compressor.  In 
small  plants  where  this  system  is  used  it  is  not  desired 
to  operate  the  machinery  but  a  portion  of  each  day. 
One  or  more  brine  storage  tanks  can  be  placed  in  the 
cold  storage  room,  in  which  a  portion  of  the  expansion 
coils  are  placed.  The  brine  being  cooled  to  a  low  tem- 
perature while  the  machine  is  in  operation,  this  body 
of  cold  brine  will  help  maintain  the  temperature  during 
the  time  the  machine  is  shut  down.  "When  brine  storage 
tanks  are  used,  they  are  placed  overhead  in  the  room  to 
be  cooled,  when  sufficient  height  permits,  and  arranged 
so  as  to  create  a  proper  circulation  of  air.  The  cost 
of  installing  a  mechanical  plant  is  much  greater  than  for 
an  ice  system,  but  after  once  installed,  especially  for 
large  houses,  the  operation  would  be  much  less.  And 
in  most  places  it  is  considered  the  most  economical  sys- 
tem to  operate." 

Ventilation. — All  fruit  storage  houses  need  to  be 
constructed  with  a  view  to  ventilation.  This  is  neces- 
sary: (1)  To  remove  the  gases  given  off  by  the  various 
products  stored;  (2)  To  remove  the  decay  organisms 
that  occasionally  appear  in  storage  rooms;  and  (3)  To 
control,  to  some  extent,  the  humidity  required  for  the 
best  keeping  condition  of  the  fruit.  In  the  case  of 
small  "dug-outs"  or  storage  cellars  on  the  farm,  little 


HO  MODERN. FRUIT  MARKETING 

attention  need  be  paid  to  ventilation,  because  the  open- 
ing of  the  doors  and  windows  to  control  the  tempera- 
ture will  give  sufficient  fresh  air  for  practically  all 
purposes. 

In  large  storage  houses  ventilation  is  attended  to 
regularly  and  considerable  care  must  be  exercised  to 
get  the  right  kind  of  air  and  at  the  right  temperature 
and  humidity.  For  fruit  storages,  ventilation  is  pre- 
ferably given  at  least  twice  a  week.  And  certain  pre- 
cautions must  be  taken.  First,  the  temperature  of  the 
outside  air  needs  to  be  almost  the  same  as  that  inside 
of  the  building.  If  it  is  impossible  to  do  this,  air  is 
first  introduced  into  the  cooling  chamber  and  the  proper 
temperature  secured  before  bringing  it  into  contact  with 
the  stored  fruit. 

Second,  the  humidity  of  the  air  introduced  must  not 
vary  materially  from  the  humidity  in  the  storage  room. 
For  this  purpose,  certain  tests  are  made  to  determine 
moisture  content  of  the  air  and  if  care  is  taken  it  is 
usually  possible  to  get  an  atmospheric  condition  outside 
the  storage  room  which  will  be  about  the  same  as  the 
requirements  of  the  humidity  inside.  Then  by  rapidly 
introducing  the  air  this  moisture  content  can  be  main- 
tained. 

Humidity  of  Cold  Storage  Houses. — By  humidity  is 
meant  the  amount  of  water  vapor  in  a  given  space,  and 
this  is  usually  calculated  by  weight  in  grains  per  cubic 
foot  of  air  space.  In  all  storage  houses,  considerable 
attention  must  necessarily  be  given  to  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  atmosphere  surrounding  the  stored 
products.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  fruit. 
If  the  humidity  runs  lower  than  required,  the  fruit  will 


FRUIT   STORAGE  111 

lose  weight  by  evaporation  and  will  also  shrivel.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  there  is  too  much  moisture  the  fruit 
will  be  likely  to  decay. 

The  amount  of  water  vapor  that  can  exist  in  any 
given  space  depends  entirely  upon  the  temperature.  The 
higher  the  temperature  the  more  moisture  in  a  given 
space.  When  it  reaches  its  maximum  or  point  of  satura- 
tion, it  is  then  deposited  on  the  fruit  or  packages  and  on 
the  walls  of  the  room  and  furnishes  ideal  conditions  for 
the  growth  and  spread  of  decay  organisms. 

At  one  degree  Fahrenheit  the  saturation  point  for 
air  would  be  about  0.457  grains  to  one  cubic  foot.  As 
the  temperature  rises,  the  holding  capacity  increases 
until,  at  100  degrees,  it  will  hold  as  high  as  19.77  grains 
to  one  cubic  foot  of  air  space.  At  a  temperature  of  31 
or  32  degrees,  the  point  at  which  most  of  the  fruit  is 
held  in  storage  houses,  the  humidity  would  be  about  two 
grains  to  the  cubic  foot  of  air  space. 

No  very  careful  figures  have  ever  been  worked  out 
for  the  best  humidity  for  the  different  fruits,  but  in  a 
general  way  they  are  carried  at  the  same  humidity  as 
the  percentage  of  water  contained  in  the  fruit.  For 
example,  apples  will  run  from  80  to  86%  water,  and 
under  such  conditions  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  the 
air  should  be  from  80  to  85  in  the  storage  rooms. 

The  percent  of  humidity  represents  only  a  relative 
condition.  The  exact  weight  of  water  in  a  cubic  foot  of 
air  when  the  humidity  is  85%  and  the  temperature  31 
degrees,  would  be  quite  different  from  that  for  70  de- 
grees. For  calculating  the  exact  quantity  of  water  in 
a  given  space,  a  chart  put  out  by  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  should  be  secured. 


112  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

To  determine  the  relative  humidity  in  the  storage 
rooms  two  methods  can  be  employed.  The  first  and  most 
common  one  is  the  use  of  the  whorl  psychrometer  (Fig. 
88).  This  consists  of  a  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometer 
similar  to  the  ones  used  in  the  observation  stations  of  the 
Government.  These  are  arranged  so  a  whirling  motion 
can  be  given  them,  and  then  by  noting  the  different 
temperatures  between  the  two  bulbs,  and  referring  to  a 
table,  the  amount  of  moisture  can  be  calculated.  Such  an 
instrument  costs  about  $5,  and  has  to  be  used  carefully 
and  skillfully  to  give  satisfaction. 

The  other  method  is  to  use  a  self-recording  machine 
known  as  the  hydrograph.  The  principle  of  this  instru- 


Fig.    88.— SLING   OR  WHORL   PSYCHROMETER 

ment  is  to  make  a  continuous  record  on  a  revolving  disk, 
recording  during  the  day  the  humidity  at  any  given  time. 
The  principle  of  the  marker  is  the  expansion  of  horse 
hairs  due  to  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air.  An 
instrument  of  this  type  would  cost  about  $60,  and  where 
temperatures  run  below  zero  would  be  of  no  value. 

Controlling  Humidity. — It  is  not  always  easy  to 
control  the  humidity  in  storage  houses.  If  it  runs  too 
high  certain  absorbents  are  used  to  take  up  the  surplus 
moisture.  The  most  common  of  these  are  lime  and  cal- 
cium chloride.  This  is  the  same  form  of  calcium  chloride 
as  is  used  in  the  pipes  for  the  ice-brine  cooling  system. 


FRUIT  STORAGE  113 

Where  lime  is  used  it  is  the  freshly  burned  lime  or 
calcium  oxide.  This  is  taken  into  the  storage  rooms 
and  placed  around  over  the  floor  in  small,  open  re- 
ceptacles. It  absorbs  moisture  from  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  and  gradually  slakes  down,  changing  to  the 
hydrated  form  of  calcium.  This  must  be  carefully 
watched  or  its  action  will  be  unsteady,  and  a  too  radical 
change  produced. 

A  better  way  is  to  use  the  calcium  chloride.  A  few 
lumps  of  the  raw  material  are  placed  on  a  frame  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  storage  room — they  absorb  the  mois- 
ture from  the  air.  Often  water  will  drop  from  the 
material  in  which  case  it  can  be  caught  on  a  drip-board 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  support.  Wlien  this  material 
has  absorbed  all  the  moisture  it  will,  it  can  by  simply 
heating  expell  the  moisture  and  be  used  over  again. 
While  the  raw  material  is  much  more  expensive  than 
lime  it  is  enough  more  efficient  to  make  it  well  worth 
the  extra  price. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  humidity  runs  too  low,  it  is 
easy  to  add  moisture  by  simply  setting  pails  of  water 
in  the  room  or  by  sprinkling  it  on  the  floor.  On  the 
whole,  storages  that  are  above  the  level  of  the  ground 
are  more  likely  to  have  too  little  than  too  much  moisture. 

Cost  of  Cold  Storage. — There  are  several  different 
methods  in  use  by  cold  storage  companies  for  the  storage 
of  fruit.  Most  of  the  eastern  companies  offer  a  double 
rate  system,  one  by  the  month  and  the  other  by  the 
season.  The  season  storage  is,  of  course,  cheaper  when 
time  is  considered  than  by  the  month.  Most  storage 
companies  run  the  season  from  November  1st  to  May 
1st.  Some  of  them  make  a  distinction  between  boxed 


114  •       MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

and  barreled  goods.  The  end  of  the  season,  in  case  of 
barrels,  is  April  1st,  while  the  box  goods  continue  to 
May  1st. 

Some  storage  companies  offer  a  flat  rate  for  the  entire 
.season,  regardless  of  whether  the  fruit  is  stored  for  a 
short  or  long  period  of  time.  Occasionally  large  stor- 
age companies  will  contract  or  sub-lease  certain  space 
to  small  concerns  or  for  the  use  of  other  growers  or 
cooperative  organizations.  Where  such  organizations 
need  considerable  space  they  can  usually  secure  a  more 
satisfactory  rate  for  the  individual  than  where  each 
grower  has  to  deal  direct  with  the  cold  storage  company. 

The  prices  of  storage  in  the  eastern  cities  do  not  vary 
materially  from  those  of  the  Central  states,  while  most 
of  these  are  materially  cheaper  than  those  of  the  south- 
ern and  warmer  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  rates 
of  a  New  England  fruit  storage  company,  which  follow, 
give  an  idea  of  the  different  prices  charged  for  both 
the  month  and  season: 

EATE  OF  STOEAGE 
Barrels  of  Apples  Boxes  of  Apples 


Under  300 

Over  300* 

'  Under  500         Over  500  " 

1  month     20  cents 

15  cents 

10  cents               8  cents 

2  months  30     " 

25       < 

12 

10     '  . 

3  months  35     " 

30       l 

14 

11     < 

4  months  40     " 

35      ' 

16 

13     ' 

5  months  45     " 

40      ' 

18 

14     < 

0  months  50     " 

45       < 

20 

15     l 

The  above  rates  include  insurance  to  the  cost  value 
of  the  apples  at  the  date  stored,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
party,  for  whom  the  apples  are  held. 

Also  the  average  prices  from  several  cold  storage 
companies  in  Chicago  is  added.  These  vary  to  some 


FRUIT  STORAGE  •          115 

extent  for  the  different  companies,  but  the  following 
will  give  a  fair  average  for  the  more  important  storage 
companies : 

AVERAGE  CHARGES  IX  CHICAGO  STORAGE 

Per  month  Per  season 

Eggs,  per  30  doz.  case 15  cents  60  cents 

Butter,  per  100  Ibs 25  "  1.00 

Cheese,  per  100  Ibs 20  "  75  " 

Apples,  per  barrel 15  "  50  " 

Apples,  per  box 10  "  35  " 

Lemons,  per  box 10  ' '  40  ' ' 

Oranges,  per  box 8  "  30  " 

Dried  fruit,  per  100  Ibs 8  "  35  " 

Dried  nuts,  per  100  Ibs 10  "  40  " 

Advantages  of  Public  Storage. — There  are  certain 
well-understood  and  well-recognized  advantages  to  be 
gained  from  the  storing  of  fruit  Some  of  these  are  of 
primary  importance  to  the  producer,  while  others  are 
more  or  less  in  the  interest  of  the  consumer.  These  may 
be  listed  as  follows:  (1)  To  prevent  the  fluctuation  of 
prices  by  offering  too  much  fruit  at  any  one  time.  (2) 
To  give  a  large  variety  for  the  consumer  by  lengthening 
the  keeping  season  of  any  one  kind  of  fruit.  (3)  To 
keep  the  fruit  for  a  much  longer  period,  thus  giving 
an  opportunity  to  lengthen  or  even  up  the  supply.  (4) 
To  permit  the  use  of  more  perishable  kinds  of  fruit. 
These  reasons  are  so  obvious,  and  have  been  commented 
upon  so  much  that  little  need  be  added. 

It  is  worth  while  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  people 
living  in  the  large  cities  of  the  Eastern  and  Central  states 
would  have  a  very  meager  supply  of  fresh  fruit  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  were  it  not  for  the  public 


116  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

cold  storage  plant.  Practically  all  the  fruit  in  transi- 
tion from  the  warmer  states  must  be  kept  in  storage. 
All  the  meat,  eggs,  and  other  food  products  which  must 
be  shipped  long  distances  could  not  possibly  be  supplied 
fresh  were  it  not  for  the  advantages  of  cold  storage. 
In  fact,  in  most  every  case  the  consumer  in  large  cities 
uses  daily  either  meat  or  fruit  products  which  have 
been  kept  fresh  in  cold  storage  plant. 

The  volume  of  business  done  would  run  far  into  the 
millions  of  dollars  per  annum  and  while  creating  a  good 
income  from  the  money  invested  in  storage  plants  they 
also  add  largely  to  the  comfort  of  the  consumer  who  is 
forced  to  make  the  larger  cities  his  home. 

Disadvantages  of  Cold  Storage. — There  are  also  cer- 
tain disadvantages  in  the  use  of  cold  storage  and  these 
refer  more  particularly  to  the  producer  or  to  the  person 
who  wishes  to  store  the  fruit.  First,  it  is  not  always  easy 
to  foresee  conditions  and  if  the  producer  stores  his 
fruit  he  must  do  so  at  his  own  risk,  hoping  that  at  the 
proper  time  the  market  will  rise  sufficiently  so  as  to  move 
his  goods  at  a  fair  profit.  The  individual  producer  is 
at  a  decided  disadvantage  in  this  case  because  he  is  not 
in  a  position  to  make  a  study  of  the  market  require- 
ments. On  the  other  hand,  operators  of  the  fruit  stor- 
age houses  are  themselves  in  the  center  of  the  consuming 
district  and  can  accurately  forecast  what  may  be  ex- 
pected. In  some  cases,  they  are  willing  to  advise  the 
storer  of  these  conditions,  but  this  can  hardly  be  ex- 
pected as  a  general  rule. 

The  second  disadvantage  is  that  the  producer  has 
little  or  no  protection.  The  fruit  is  often  shipped 
across  two  or  three  states,  and  placed  in  storage.  After 


FRUIT  STORAGE  117 

it  leaves  the  Jiome  town  the  grower  seldom  sees  it  again 
and  must  rely  upon  the  word  of  the  storage  people  as 
to  its  condition.  Much  dissatisfaction  and  complaint 
has  been  heaped  upon  the  storage  companies  for  taking 
undue  liberties  with  the  goods  stored  by  producers.  In 
such  cases  cooperative  organizations,  by  being  able  to 
have  an  agent  at  the  centers  of  consumption,  can  better 
protect  the  interests  of  the  producers. 

In  the  third  place,  the  storage  of  fruit  often  causes 
an  extension  of  credit.  This  in  itself  is  not  a  great 
disadvantage,  yet  ultimately  it  cannot  but  react  against 
the  producer.  For  example,  the  grower  places  a  large 
quantity  of  fruit  in  storage;  he  then  asks  the  storage 
company  to  advance  a  certain  percent  of  the  value. 
This  the  companies  are  usually  willing  to  do,  but  in  turn 
charge  an  interest  for  the  money  advanced. 

Cold  storage  companies  are  willing  to  advance  about 
half  the  sum  to  which  the  prospective  sales  will  amount, 
charging  from  6  to  8%  interest  until  such  time  as  the 
sales  can  be  made.  This  enables  the  producer  to  pay 
for  his  help  in  preparing  the  fruit  for  market,  to  carry 
on  his  own  business  interests  and  live  until  the  fruit  is 
sold.  On  the  other  hand,  he  is  not  only  paying  storage 
for  the  keeping  of  the  fruit  but  is  also  paying  interest 
on  the  advance  of  money  which  rightly  belongs  to  him. 

While  this  is  considered  legitimate  business  it  is  al- 
ways to  the  disadvantage  of  the  producer  in  favor  of 
the  storage  colnpany.  Another  disadvantage  is  that  the 
storage  companies  are  often  asked  to  act  as  salesmen, 
and  this  results  not  infrequently  in  certain  questionable 
speculations  on  the  part  of  the  storage  houses.  The 
manager  of  a  storage  house  may  receive  a  bid  on  a  part 


118  MODERN  PRUIT   MARKETING 

of  some  particular  good  lot  of  fruit  stored.  He  im- 
mediately wires  to  the  owner  offering  him  a  somewhat 
lower  price  for  the  immediate  sale  of  the  fruit.  The 
owner  not  knowing  the  exact  market  conditions,  and  as 
the  price  seems  good,  accepts  the  offer  and  is  "buncoed" 
out  of  his  extra  legitimate  profit. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  EFFECTS  OF  STORAGE  ON  FRUIT 

Keeping  Qualities. — There  are  several  well-recognized 
conditions  associated  with  the  keeping  quality  of  fruit 
in  cold  storage.  Other  than  the  storing  of  first-class 
fruit,  free  from  blemishes,  etc.,  probably  the  maturity 
of  the  fruit  is  of  the  most  importance.  Various  experi- 
ments have  been  conducted  along  this  line  and  the  re- 
sults show  plainly  that  well-matured  specimens  keep 
much  better  in  storage  than  where  they  are  not  fully 
grown  or  developed.  Apples  intended  for  storage  are 
in  better  condition  if  allowed  to  remain  on  the  trees 
as  long  as  possible,  in  order 
to  insure  good  maturity  for 
storage. 

It  has  also  been  found  that 
the  color  of  the  fruit  has  con- 
siderable to  do  with  its  duration 
in  cold  storage.  There  is  ap- 
parently no  difference  between 
the  keeping  qualities  of  green 
varieties  and  of  the  highly  col- 
ored varieties  so  long  as  the  same 
degree  of  maturity  is  maintained. 
On  the  other  hand,  fruit  low  in 
color  does  not  keep  as  well  under 
normal  storage  conditions.  Usu- 
119 


Fig.  89. 

Highly  colored,  well-graded 
fruit  in  closed  packages  keeps 
best  in  storage. 


120 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


ally,  fruit  that  is  not  well  colored  is  grown  in  the  shade,  or 
some  quality  of  soil  or  fertilizer  is  lacking  to  develop 
the  color,  and  that  usually  means  a  lack  of  maturity. 
Therefore,  in  selecting  for  good  keeping  qualities  the 
highly  colored  fruits  or  the  well  developed  color  of  any 
variety  seems  to  be  important. 

Fruit   that   is   overgrown    or   unduly   large    for   the 


Pig.  90.— A  POOR  WAY   TO   STOKE  FRUIT   EVEN   FOR  A 

SHORT  TIME 
More  handling  is  required,  and  more  shrinkage  and  decay  results. 


variety  is  not  good  for  long  keeping  in  cold  storage.  It 
is  due,  probably,  to  the  fact  that  the  first  fruit  on 
young  trees  do  not  develop  as  strong  a  cellular  struc- 
ture as  fruit  from  older  trees,  and  this  is  also  ap- 
parently true  of  overgrown  or  over-sized  fruit.  Thus, 
for  storage  as  well  as  for  sale,  the  average  or  medium- 


THE    EFFECTS   OF   STORAGE   ON   FRUITS        121 

sized  fruit  is  selected  in  preference  to  the  unusually 
large. 

Various  cultural  methods  in  orchard  management  have 
their  influence  on  the  keeping  qualities  of  fruit.  A 
number  of  experiments  relative  to  the  influence  of  sod 
culture  over  clean  culture  for  keeping  qualities  in  stor- 
age have  been  conducted  and  the  consensus  of  opinions 
indicate  that  there  is  no  influence  in  favor  of  either 
method.  It  was  originally  supposed  that  apples  from 
sod  culture  would  keep  better  in  storage.  This  opinion 
resulted  from  the  fact  that  apples  grown  on  sod  land 
usually  mature  a  little  ahead  of  those  where  clean  cul- 
ture is  given.  Both  being  picked  and  stored  at  the 
same  time,  the  fruit  from  the  sod  would  go  into  storage 
in  more  matured  condition  than  where  the  clean  culture 
was  given. 

Later  experiments  showed  that  equally  matured  fruit 
from  either  cultures  keep  equally  good.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  types  of  soil  where  fruit  is  grown  has  a  marked 
influence  on  the  keeping  qualities.  Fruits  that  keep 
best  are  grown  on  the  lighter  sandy  soils.  They  develop 
a  higher  color,  and  also  mature  in  better  shape,  thus 
keeping  much  better  in  storage.  Fruits  from  heavy 
soils,  which  are  of  a  clayey  type,  are  not  so  highly  col- 
ored ordinarily  and  deteriorate  in  storage  much  more 
quickly  than  those  from  the  other  kinds  of  soil. 

The  fertilizing  constituents  used  also  have  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  keeping  of  fruit  in  storage.  Soils 
that  are  too  rich  in  nitrogen  produce  fruit  with  poor 
keeping  qualities.  Soils  that  are  deficient  in  potash  or 
phosphorus,  especially  the  latter,  do  not  produce  good 
keeping  fruit.  The  reasons  for  this  is  undoubtedly  due 


122 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


to  the  influence  of  the  fertilizing  constituents.  Nitrogen 
in  abundance  tends  to  produce  overgrowth  of  vegetation 
and  under-coloring  of  the  fruit,  while  phosphorus  and 
potassium  develop  the  flavors  and  aroma  characteristics 
of  the  fruit  and  the  high  colors  that  are  necessary  for 
good  keeping.  This  is  one  reason  why  old,  neglected 
orchards  or  those  badly  run  down  produce  fruit  that 


*;  i:  - 


• 


I 


Fig.   91.— FRUIT  STORED  IN   OPEN  BOXES 

This  is  not  desirable  if  it  must  be  repacked  before  selling. 

keeps  poorly   and  is  lacking  in  the   right  flavor   and 
texture. 

The  temperature  of  the  fruit  at  packing  time  influ- 
ences its  keeping  in  storage.  Fruit  that  is  allowed  to 
stand  at  a  high  temperature  for  two  or  three  weeks  will 
advance  in  the  ripening  stages  much  more  rapidly  after 
being  put  in  storage  than  when  transferred  at  once 
from  the  trees  to  the  cold  storage  house.  All  fruits  in- 
tended for  storage  are  preferably  graded  and  packed 


THE    EFFECTS   OF   STORAGE   ON   FRUITS        123 

as  soon  as  picked,  and  immediately  forwarded  to  the 
storage  house.  Any  delay  in  getting  the  temperature 
down  to  the  desired  point  will  have  a  tendency  to  shorten 
the  time  which  the  fruit  will  keep. 

Fruit  wrappers  have  a  very  marked  influence  on 
stored  fruit.  They  prevent,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
spread  of  decay  organisms,  they  help  to  control  the 
humidity  by  keeping  the  moisture  from  evaporating  so 
rapidly  and  also  prevent  the  rapid  rise  of  temperature 
when  fruit  is  taken  out  of  the  storage.  All  these  con- 
siderations are  of  importance  and  the  producer  who 
wishes  to  store  his  fruit  for  the  longest  possible  time 
makes  use  of  them.  Where  the  producer  is  storing  fruit 
for  only  a  short  time,  he  need  not  pay  so  much  atten- 
tion to  these  conditions. 

Freezing  Effects. — No  doubt  almost  every  orchardist 
has  found  fruit  that  has  apparently  been  frozen  and 
then  later  thawed  out  without  material  injury.  This 
is  not  only  true  in  the  case  of  fruits  but  also  of  vege- 
tables and  other  products  as  well.  This  depends  not 
so  much  upon  the  temperature  to  which  the  fruit  is  sub- 
jected as  upon  the  way  in  which  it  is  thawed  out.  In 
cases  where  the  temperature  does  not  run  too  low,  if  the 
thawing  out  is  conducted  carefully  and  not  too  rapidly, 
the  fruit  will  again  take  its  normal  condition  and  ap- 
parently be  as  good  as  before.  The  effect  of  freezing 
on  fruit  is  not  very  well  understood  but  it  is  supposed 
that  in  the  freezing  process  the  cell  sap  is  disorganized 
and  a  part  of  it  forced  out  between  the  cells  or  into  the 
inter-cellular  spaces.  Where  thawing  is  gradual  this 
sap  goes  back  into  the  cells  and  assumes  its  normal  con- 
dition, but  where  thawing  is  rapid  the  moisture  evapo- 


11M  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

rates  from  the  outside  and  the  cells  collapse,  and  the 
structure  rapidly  deteriorates. 

The  exact  temperature  at  which  fruit  may  be  sub- 
jected without  injury  is  still  an  open  question.  Experi- 
ments conducted  at  the  Iowa  station  a  few  years  ago 
brought  out  the  fact  that  a  temperature  of  19  to  20 


Fig.  92.— BARRELED  APPLES  IN  STORAGE 
Where  barrels  are  headed  up  they  are  best  stored  on  their  sides. 


degrees  could  be  maintained  for  some  time  and  the  fruit 
thawed  out  gradually  with  no  particular  injury  either 
to  the  flavor  or  keeping  qualities.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  drop  to  10  degrees  almost  invariably  spoiled  the  fruit 
no  matter  how  carefully  the  thawing  process  was  con- 
ducted. Apparently,  then,  somewhere  between  20  and  10 


THE   EFFECTS   OF   STORAGE   O£T   FRUITS        125 
*        *  **•        ^^^P 

^  *  ,  ^^*'dg 

degrees  is  a  point  at  which  most  fruits  can'  stand*  witjf 

out  being  injured  by  the  freezing  process. 

This  same  condition  can  often  be  noted  in  the  orchards 
of  the  Northern  states  before  the  fruit  is  harvested.  A 
drop  in  temperature  of  three  to  four  degrees  below  freez- 
ing, sometimes  accompanied  by  snow,  will  freeze  the  fruit 
almost  through.  If  the  sun  comes  out  brightly  the  fol- 
lowing day,  the  fruit  is  sure  to  be  spoiled.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  conditions  are  favorable,  the  skies  cloudy  and 
the  temperature  rises  gradually,  the  fruit  will  often 
regain  the  normal  condition  without  any  bad  effects. 

Fruit  Scald. — This  is  a  trouble  which  often  appears 
in  storage  and  for  which  no  very  satisfactory  explana- 
tion has  been  given.  It  is  a  physiological  trouble,  as  no 
decay  organisms  have  ever  been  found  in  connection 
with  it.  It  appears  mostly  on  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
seldom  penetrating  the  flesh.  It  gives  the  fruit  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  half-baked  apple;  the  skin  turning  dark 
brown  in  spots.  The  affected  area  may  be  small  or  ex- 
tending over  a  considerable  part  of  the  fruit.  While  it 
does  not  materially  injure  the  value  of  the  fruit,  it  does 
detract  considerably  from  the  appearance,  and  fruit 
held  in  storage  for  the  fancy  trade  or  for  dessert  pur- 
poses is  discounted  if  scald  appears. 

The  cause  is  purely  physiological  and  seems  to  be  as- 
sociated only  with  the  lower  temperatures  in  storage 
houses.  It  seldom  or  never  develops  in  common  cellars 
on  the  farm  where  the  temperature  does  not  run  lower 
than  35  or  40  degrees.  It  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  an 
excess  of  carbon  dioxide  given  off.  by  the  fruit  in  the 
ripening.  There  is  no  very  good  way  of  preventing  the 
appearance  of  scald  except  in  the  careful  selection  of 


126  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

fruit  before  storing.  There  is  little  difference  in  the 
green  and  the  red  varieties;  but  apparently  there  is 
considerable  difference  between  the  highly  colored  and 
poorly  colored  specimens  of  the  same  variety.  Most  of 
the  trouble  appears  upon  the  green  or  under  colored 
parts  of  the  fruit. 

There  is  also  a  difference  between  the  fruit  of  differ- 
ent years  or  seasons.  Some  years  not  over  1  or  2%  of 
scald  will  appear,  while  in  some  seasons  as  high  as  20 
or  25%  will  be  affected  by  this  trouble.  This  is  a  trouble 
that  is  worthy  of  more  serious  consideration  on  the  part 
of  various  state  experiment  stations. 

Shrinkage  in  Storage. — It  has  been  found  impossible 
to  prevent  fruit  from  shrinking  while  in  storage.  This 
is  not  of  the  greatest  importance,  still  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  it.  In  a  good  many  retail  markets  it  is  the 
habit  of  dealers  to  sell  fruit  by  weight  rather  than  by 


Fig.   93.— A   CONVENIENT  RACK   FOR   STORING  SMALL 
QUANTITIES  OF  FRUIT 


THE    EFFECTS   OF    STORAGE    OX   FRUITS        127 

bulk,  and  in  such  cases  the  amount  of  evaporation  may 
be  calculated.  Shrinkage  is  due  altogether  to  the  evap- 
oration of  moisture  from  the  fruit.  Where  this  is  great 
the  fruit  becomes  shrivelled  and  gives  a  dry,  unattractive 
appearance  when  offered  for  sale.  Fruit  that  has  an  oily 
skin  does  not  lose  moisture  by  evaporation  so  readily  as 
the  russeted  or  dry-skinned  fruits. 

The  amount  of  evaporation  varies  greatly  with  the 
different  varieties  and  at  the  different  degrees  of  tem- 
perature at  which  it  is  stored.  Under  normal  conditions 
it  will  be  necessary  to  make  an  average  allowance  of  5 
to  10%  lost  weight  for  the  storage  season.  Buyers  usu- 
ally estimate  from  10  to  15%  to  be  on  the  safe  side  and 
allow  for  the  maximum  shrinkage.  The  only  way  to 
prevent  undue  shrinkage  is  to  pay  more  strict  attention 
to  the  humidity  of  the  air  in  the  storage  room.  Mention 
has  been  made  of  the  amount  of  humidity  necessary  for 
the  best  keeping  of  the  fruit.  Where  the  moisture  con- 
tent of  the  air  or  humidity  is  below  80%  a  large  amount 
of  shrinkage  may  be  expected.  On  the  other  hand,  even 
though  maintained  at  the  best  known  standard,  5  to  10% 
must  still  be  allowed  where  fruit  is  stored  for  a  full 
season. 

Decay  in  Storage. — There  are  a  number  of  different 
kinds  of  rots  caused  by  various  forms  of  fungus  growth 
which  are  always  associated  with  the  storage  of  fruit. 
These  rots  are  usually  designated  by  their  peculiar  ef- 
fect upon  the  fruit  itself.  For  example,  the  most  com- 
mon are  the  soft  rot,  the  black  rot,  the  brown  rot,  the 
bitter  rot  and  the  disease  commonly  known  as  the  black 
spot  or  scab,  all  taking  their  name  from  their  character- 
istic appearance.  These  are  all  fungus  troubles  and, 


128 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


at  the  normal  temperature  after  the  fruit  is  once  in- 
fected, develop  very  rapidly.  As  the  life  of  the  fruit 
is  prolonged  in  storage  the  effects  of  these  organisms 
become  more  noticeable  than  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
storage  season.  All  are  affected  materially  by  the  tern- 


Fig.  94.— APPLE  SCAB  APPEARING  IN  STORAGE 

perature  at  which   the   fruit   is   stored,   ths   lower   the 
temperature  the  less  active  is  the  growth. 

It  is  well  to  pay  particular  attention  to  the  grading  to 
see  that  no  affected  fruit  is  put  in  storage.  Practically 
all  of  these  decay  organisms  are  of  such  a  nature  that 
it  is  impossible  for  them  to  gain  entrance  to  a  sound 
healthy  skin  and,  hence,  if  there  are  no  punctures  or 
bruises  that  will  break  the  skin  it  is  not  easy  for  decay 
to  spread.  However,  a  very  fine  puncture,  even  as 


Fig.    95.— BROWN    ROT 


Fig.    98.— SOFT    ROT    OR   BLUE 
MOLD 


Fig.  96. — BITTER  ROT  OF  FRUIT 


Fig.   99.— BALDWIN   SPOT 


Fig.  97.—  BLACK  ROT 


Fig.    100.—  FRUIT   SPOT 


129 


130  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

fine    as   a   needle   point   will   give    ample    opportunity 
for  infection  from  these  various  decay  organisms. 

As  the  temperature  of  the  fruit  in  storage  is  lowered 
the  activities  of  the  fungi  are  lessened,  until  at  a  point 
about  31  or  32  degrees  growth  is  almost  stopped.  It  is 
not  possible  to  kill  or  eradicate  any  of  the  rots,  so  far 
as  known,  by  lowering  the  temperature  beyond  31  de- 
grees. As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  removed  from  storage 


Fig.  101.— PINK  ROT  FOLLOWING  APPLE  SCAB 

the  temperature  rises  and  the  decay  fungi  immediately 
become  active  and  work  much  more  rapidly  than  they 
would  previous  to  storage. 

Various  precautions  need  to  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  decay  in  storage  houses:  (1)  The  temperature 
should  not  be  changed  more  than  one  degree  in  24 
hours.  (2)  The  ventilation  should  be  sufficient  to  re- 
move any  of  the  spores  that  might  be  scattered  through 
the  air.  (3)  "Where  the  fruit  is  wrapped,  the  packages 
sealed  up  and  not  rehandled  until  removed  from  the 


THE    EFFECTS    OF   STORAGE    OX    FRUITS        131 

storage  house,  there  is  much  less  damage  resulting  from 
the  effects  of  these  decay  organisms. 

Paper  wrappers  are  of  especial  importance  because  of 
their  insulating  value  against  the  spread  of  the  fungus 
growth.  It  takes  from  two  to  six  weeks  for  the  fungus 
to  go  through  its  complete  life  cycle.  Then  as  the  spores 
are  given  out  they  float  through  the  air  and  finally 
lodge  upon  new  or  uninfected  places.  Where  the  wraps 
are  put  on  in  good  shape  it  tends  to  keep  the  infected 
fruit  separated  from  the  others  and  prevent  the  spread 
of  the  decay  organisms. 

Physiology  of  Fruit. — While  there  is  still  a  great  op- 
portunity for  the  study  of  the  physiology  of  fruits,  a 
few  things  that  are  now  known  may  be  noted  in  connec- 
tion with  the  keeping  of  fruit  in  storage.  Certain  sub- 
stances are  always  present  in  the  chemical  make-up  of 
fruits  and  more  or  less  definite  changes  are  known  to 
take  place.  By  far  the  greatest  percentage  of  all  fruit 
is  water,  running  as  high  as  90%  in  fruit  like  straw- 
berries and  from  75  to  85%  in  apples,  pears,  etc.,  and 
down  as  low  as  60  or  65%  in  some  of  the  stone  fruit 
which  have  a  large  seed  or  pit.  Most  fruits  contain 
various  carbohydrates  such  as  the  fruit  sugars,  cellulose 
and  pectin  bodies,  and  there  are  also  certain  acids  or 
alkaloids  present  in  almost  every  kind. 

The  apple  contains  malic  acid  which  gives  it  its  char- 
acteristic flavor  and  aroma,  while  the  citrus  fruits  have 
the  citric  acid,  etc.  These  are  purely  vegetable  acids 
and  are  difficult  to  classify  from  the  chemical  stand- 
point. Most  fruits  contain  a  certain  amount  of  tannin, 
especially  pome  fruits.  This,  when  exposed  to  the  air, 
is  changed  into  tannic  acid  by  oxidization  and  is  re- 


132  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

sponsible  for  the  rapid  change  in  color  from  white  to 
brown  in  the  cut  surface  of  the  fresh  fruit ;  also  largely 
responsible  for  the  bitter  principle  contained  in  fruits  be- 
fore they  are  ripe.  Most  fruits  in  the  ripening  process 
pass  through  certain  chemical  and  respiratory  changes. 

Changes  in  Ripening. — When  a  fruit  is  taken  from 
the  tree  it  is  not  a  dead  or  inert  substance,  but  certain 
chemical  changes  continue  to  take  place  until  the  fruit 
is  finally  used  or  decayed.  This  process  is  usually  spoken 
of  as  the  l  i  ripening  up ' '  of  the  fruit.  The  most  notice- 
able change  is  the  gradual  transformation  of  the  starch 
content  to  sugar.  In  this  way  the  fruit  becomes  sweeter 
and  certain  aromas  or  flavors  are  intensified.  The  rea- 
son for  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  abundance  of  starch 
is  associated  with  firm,  hard  fruit.  At  high  temperatures 
the  starch  changes  rapidly  to  sugar  and  the  low  temper- 
atures do  not  have  the  same  effect  upon  the  cellulose, 
hence  they  soften  much  more  slowly. 

Changes  in  Storage. — The  greatest  influence  of  cold 
storage  upon  the  chemical  changes  in  fruit  is  to  retard 
them.  The  fruit  kept  at  a  temperature  as  low  as  pos- 
sible without  freezing  will  lengthen  materially  the  life 
of  the  fruit  by  retarding  certain  chemical  changes.  The 
rate  of  transition  of  starch  to  sugar  will  be  mucji  slower 
in  the  cold  storage  house.  The  time  of  cooling  down 
also  has  a  marked  influence  on  fruit.  That  which  is 
cooled  down  as  quickly  as  possible  after  being  removed 
from  the  trees  will  keep  much  better  in  storage  than 
where  from  two  to  four  weeks  elapse  before  it  is  placed 
in  the  cooling  room.  With  such  fruits  as  plums  or  apri- 
cots it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  this  cooling  be  done 
at  the  earliest  possible  opportunity  after  picking. 


THE   EFFECTS   OF   STORAGE   OX   FRUITS        133 

The  size  of  the  package  also  has  considerable  to  do 
with  the  rapidity  with  which  the  fruit  is  cooled  down, 
and  hence  the  attended  chemical  changes.  Large  pack- 
ages like  barrels  of  apples  require  from  24  to  72  hours 
for  the  inside  of  the  package  to  reach  the  same  degree 
as  the  outside.  Where  the  fruit  is  wrapped  in  paper, 
the  insulating  power  of  the  paper  tends  to  retard  the 
cooling  down  process.  The  smaller  packages,  therefore, 
are  usually  preferred  by  fruit  storage  men  and  by  fruit 
growers  for  the  best  results  in  the  keeping  qualities  of 
fruit  in  cold  storage. 

The  different  varieties  and  kinds  of  fruit  are  affected 
in  widely  different  ways  in  cold  storage.  In  such  fruits 
as  lemons  the  desirability  of  the  fruit  rests  largely  upon 
the  quantities  of  citric  acid  they  contain.  It  is  imper- 
ative that  no  very  great  quantity  of  the  starch  be  con- 
verted into  sugar.  "With  fruits  like  bananas,  pineapples, 
etc.,  the  quality  is  improved  materially  by  the  increase 
of  the  sugar  content  and,  therefore,  they  are  stored 
in  a  higher  temperature.  Thus,  every  effort  is  put  forth 
to  develop  as  large  a  sugar  content  as  possible.  With 
apples,  certain  varieties  keep  well  in  storage  while 
others  go  down  very  quickly.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
it  is  seldom,  if  ever,  desirable  to  cold  store  fall  or  sum- 
mer varieties  of  apples.  Those  of  standard  grade  and 
quality  are  in  all  cases  the  most  desirable. 


CHAPTER  VII 

TRANSPORTATION 

Freight  Cars. — For  the  shipping  of  produce  to  large 
markets  there  are  four  types  of  freight  cars  in  use. 
They  are  known  as  the  common  freight,  the  air  ventilated 
cars,  the  heated  cars,  and  the  refrigerator  cars.  The 
common  freight  are  the  cars  in  which  ordinary  mer- 
chandise is  shipped  and  are  used  in  a  great  many  cases 
for  fruit  for  short  hauls,  but  only  rarely  are  they  used 
for  fruit  when  shipped  long  distances.  While  in  some 
cases  they  give  satisfactory  results,  their  use  on  the  whole 
should  be  discouraged  in  favor  of  some  of  the  other  types. 
In  the  Northern  states  the  common  freight  is  used  to 
some  extent  for  the  less  perishable  fruits,  but  more  par- 
ticularly the  air  ventilated  cars  are  used  where  it  is  not 
necessary  to  refrigerate  the  produce  in  transit. 

The  air  ventilated  cars  are  similar  to  the  common 
freight  except  that  they  are  provided  with  means  for 
ventilation  so  as  to  give  the  fruit  pure  air  while  in 
transit.  Also  most  of  the  refrigerator  cars  are  arranged 
for  ventilation  when  ice  is  not  used.  Nearly  all  of  the 
ventilated  cars  work  only  while  in  motion,  having  small 
openings  in  the  front,  near  the  end,  so  when  the  car  is 
moving  the  air  is  drawn  through  and  thus  ventilation  is 
provided  In  the  colder  states  of  the  North,  where  fruit 
is  shipped  during  the  winter,  such  as  apples  from  the 

134 


TRANSPORTATION  135 

Northeast  or  Northwest,  some  arrangement  is  necessary 
whereby  cars  can  be  kept  warm  or  the  contents  kept 
from  freezing  while  in  transit. 

Various  types  of  so-called  heated  cars  are  used  for 
the  different  kinds  of  produce.  These  are  more  commonly 
used  for  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  rather  than  for 
fruit.  The  last  and  most  important  kind  is  the  refrig- 
erator car  which  is  especially  constructed  for  the  ship- 
ment of  fruit.  All  of  the  fruit  brought  to  the  Eastern 
markets  from  the  South  and  from  the  far  West  is 
handled  in  these  refrigerator  cars.  They  are  specially 
designed  and  insulated  against  the  heat  from  outside 
and  are  also  provided  with  bunkers  on  each  end  to  hold 
ice  to  keep  the  fruit  cold  while  in  transit.  Most  all  of 
the  trunk  line  railroads  own  a  large  number  of  these 
refrigerator  cars,  but  there  are  also  some  private  line 
companies  which  have  their  own  cars  and  are  hauled  by 
the  railroads  on  certain  working  agreements,  usually 
based  on  tonnage. 

Express  Companies. — All  shippers  of  the  more  perish- 
able fruits  must  deal  with  express  companies  because  of 
the  necessary  haste  in  delivery  of  goods  to  market. 
Nearly  all  the  express  companies  handle  small  fruit  on 
a  large  scale.  Express  rates  charged  by  the  various 
transportation  companies  are  usually  very  much  higher 
than  the  ordinary  freight  rate.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
travel  on  a  much  faster  schedule  and,  hence,  can  deliver 
the  goods  more  quickly.  It  is  seldom  possible  to  ship 
perishable  fruits  even  for  short  distances  by  local  freight, 
hence  producers  located  no  farther  away  than  24  or  48 
hours'  journey  must  make  use  of  these  express  com- 
panies to  deliver  the  fruit. 


136  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Most  companies  make  special  rates  for  the  handling 
of  perishable  farm  produce,  and  where  delivered  or  con- 
signed to  the  commission  house  the  express  rate  is  about 
half  what  it  would  be  where  delivered  to  an  individual 
For  example,  southern  New  Jersey  has  a  special  express 
rate,  to  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  of  about  35  cents  a 
bushel  crate  of  strawberries  when  consigned  to  a  com- 
mission house,  but  when  consigned  to  an  individual  the 
regular  charge  would  be  about  twice  that  amount.  The 
express  companies  explain  this  discrepancy  in  that  the 
private  crate  must  be  delivered  at  the  expense  of  the 
transportation  company,  while  those  consigned  to  the 
commission  house  are  looked  after  by  the  commission 
man. 

Where  long  hauls  are  made,  necessitating  the  use  of 
refrigerator  cars,  fruit  can  only  be  handled  in  carload 
lots.  The  cost  of  icing  and  handling  such  cars  would 
be  prohibitive  if  carrying  less  than  the  full  capacity  of 
the  car.  In  most  places  where  fruit  is  shipped  in  large 
quantities  special  rates  may  be  had,  known  as  "com- 
modity rates/'  which  means  a  special  railroad  rate  for 
certain  commodities  shipped  between  certain  definite 
points.  And  such  commodity  rates  are  from  25  to  50% 
less  than  the  regular  rates  under  ordinary  conditions. 
To  get  such  a  rate  where  none  has  been  previously 
granted,  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  individual  or 
organization  to  petition  the  railroads  or  the  railroad 
commission  of  the  state,  setting  forth  points  between 
which  the  rate  is  desired  and  the  commodity  to  be 
shipped. 

Where  such  shipments  are  in  more  than  one  state,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  petition  the  Interstate  Railway  Com- 


TRANSPORTATION  137 

mission.  Such  requests  are  usually  considered  by  the 
companies  and,  if  they  deem  them  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance, are  granted,  but  if  not  it  will  be  necessary  for  the 
state  railroad  commission  to  hold  a  hearing  at  which 
the  parties  wishing  the  reduction  must  appear  and  give 
testimony  in  favor  of  such  rates.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  individual  growers  who  can  do  this  are  very  few, 
and  only  organizations  handling  a  large  amount  of  fruit 
can  make  satisfactory  arrangements  with  the  transporta- 
tion companies. 

Private  Car  Lines. — There. are  a  number  of  express 
companies  which  handle  food  and  fruit  products,  usually 
designated  as  private  car  lines.  These  are  independent 
companies  owning  refrigerator  cars  which  are  hauled 
by  the  railroads  on  the  mileage  basis.  In  addition,  most 
of  the  express  companies  have  refrigerator  cars  in  con- 
nection with  their  regular  express  trade.  Some  private 
car  lines  have  from  1,000  to  50,000  refrigerator  cars, 
all  in  addition  to  those  owned  and  operated  by  the  reg- 
ular railroad  companies.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
100,000  such  cars  are  in  constant  use  in  the  United 
States.  Shipping  fruit  in  refrigerator  cars  has  devel- 
oped so  greatly  during  the  past  8  or  10  years  that  they 
are  now  considered  indispensable  to  the  general  public. 

Much  criticism  has  been  heaped  upon  these  companies 
because  of  rebates  accepted  and  given  in  connection  with 
the  transporting  of  perishable  goods.  Time  was  not 
long  since,  when  it  was  almost  impossible  for  an  indi- 
vidual to  ship  perishable  goods  without  patronizing  some 
of  these  private  car  lines  but,  in  later  years,  the  super- 
visory power  of  the  Interstate  Railway  Commission  has 
been  sufficiently  strong  to  regulate  the  business.  The 


138 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


efficiency  and  general  helpfulness  to  the  producer  has 
increased  from  year  to  year. 

Parcel  Post. — Another  means  of  transporting  perish- 
able goods,  which  is  now  only  in  its  infancy,  is  the  use 
of  the  parcel  post.  It  is  not  possible  to  predict  at  pres- 
ent just  how  far  this  service  will  develop,  yet  most 
shippers  are  looking  forward  to  the  time  when  a  real 

efficient  parcel  post 
can  be  put  in  opera- 
tion. There  are  many 
reasons,  both  pro  and 
con,  regarding  the  use 
of  the  parcel  post  for 
perishable  goods,  and 
these  are  far  too  num- 
erous to  be  given 
lengthy  consideration 
here.  The  greatest 
value  of  this  plan  lies  in  the  shipping  of  produce 
from  the  grower  to  the  consumer.  This  will  cause 
the  elimination  of  all  middlemen  and  represent  theoreti- 
cally the  ideal  condition  for  marketing  farm  produce. 
Its  use  will  be  attended  by  many  difficulties  until  the 
consuming  public  has  been  educated  to  appreciate  its 
value  and  until  then  it  will  probably  not  be  in  ex- 
tensive use. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  present  rate  offered  by  parcel 
post  is  not  materially  less  than  that  offered  by  express 
companies  and  for  fruits  is  still  too  high  to  be  of  service 
to  the  individual  producer.  When  the  consumers  in  the 
large  cities  can  arrange  in  advance  to  use  the  mail 
to  order  produce  direct  from  the  farms,  then  will 


Fig.  102.— PASTEBOARD  PACKAGES 
For  sending  produce  by  mail. 


TRANSPORTATION"  139 

parcel  post  become  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  of  great 
value  in  distributing  farm  produce.  For  the  past  15 
years  efforts  have  been  made  to  produce  a  workable 
parcel  post  system,  and  have  been  defeated  in  almost 
every  case  up  to  1912  when  a  bill  was  passed  by  Con- 
gress inaugurating  its  use  on  a  limited  scale.  It  has 


Fig.  103.— APPLES  BY  PARCEL  POST 

since  been  extended,  until  at  the  present  time  it  is  pos- 
sible to  ship  in  quantities  as  large  as  50  pounds  in  the 
first  and  second  zones  through  the  medium  of  the  parcel 
post. 

Pre-cooling  of  Fruit. — All  of  the  more  perishable 
fruits  that  are  usually  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars  must 
be  kept  cool  by  the  use  of  ice  while  in  transit.  Espe- 
cially is  this  true  of  the  fruits  shipped  from  the  South- 
ern or  "Western  states  to  the  Eastern  markets.  On  the 


140  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

long  hauls  it  was  found  that  the  quantity  of  ice  required 
and  the  extra  tonnage  on  account  of  it,  added  so  greatly 
to  the  expense  that  various  methods  were  introduced  to 
try  to  cool  down  the  fruit  before  being  shipped.  All 
of  this  experimenting  resulted  finally  in  the  inaugura- 
tion of  several  pre-cooling  systems  which  are  now  ex- 
tensively used  both  in  the  South  and  the  West. 


Fig.    104.— A   SPECIAL   CARTON 

This  carton  holds  100  apples  and  can  be  sent  by  Parcel  Post  in  the 
first  two  zones. 

At  present  there  are  two  well-defined  systems  for  pre- 
cooling  fruit ;  one  known  as  the  car  system  and  the  other 
as  the  box  system.  In  the  former,  the  fruit  is  loaded 
into  the  refrigerator  cars  at  the  warehouse  and  run  di- 
rect to  the  pre-cooling  plant  and  there  cooled  down  in 
the  cars.  In  the  other  system,  the  boxes  are  run  through 
a  cool  room  and  the  temperature  run  down  before  load- 
ing. Both  methods  have  given  satisfaction,  but  appar- 
ently the  box  system  is  gaining  in  importance  over  the 
other  method.  The  reason  for  this  lies  mostlv  in  two 


TRANSPORTATION  141 

facts:  (1)  The  box  system  is  more  cheaply  installed 
and  operated,  and  (2)  the  fruit  is  more  easily  cooled 
down  before  loading  in  the  cars  than  it  is  afterwards. 
The  car  system  of  pre-cooling  is  so  expensive  that  it 
can  only  be  installed  in  centers  of  production  or  at  the 
best  shipping  points.  In  such  cases  it  is  necessary  to 
load  the  fruit  into  the  cars  during  the  day  or  evening 


Fig.    105.— PACKAGES   OF   FRUIT   READY  FOR  THE   POSTMAN 

from  each  of  the  warehouses  and  then  run  direct  to  the 
different  cooling  plants.  Here  they  are  cooled  down 
during  the  night,  and  in  the  morning  sent  off  on  their 
journey.  This  means  that  from  5  to  24  hours  must  elapse 
from  the  time  the  fruit  is  placed  in  the  cars  until  it  is 
properly  cooled  down  for  shipment.  In  the  hot  climates 
of  the  South  and  the  West  this  has  been  found  to  be  too 
long  a  time. 

The  principle  on  which  these  pre-cooling  plants  oper- 


142 


MODERN  FRUIT  MARKETING 


ate  is  similar  to  the  common  cold  storage  plant.  In  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  United  States,  artificial  ice  would 
have  to  be  used  where  cars  are  iced  for  transit,  so  these 
pre-cooling  plants  are  usually  equipped  with  machinery 
for  making  artificial  ice  as  well  as  for  the  cooling  of  the 
air  to  be  run  through  the  cars  of  loaded  fruit.  The 


Fig.  106.— DELIVERING  BARRELED  APPLES  TO  THE  RAILROAD 


expense  of  such  plants  for  the  car  system  runs  as  high 
as  $500,000  to  $800,000.  Most  of  them  have  thus  far 
been  operated  by  the  railroad  companies,  while  those  of 
the  box  system  are  mostly  operated  by  the  various  fruit 
growers'  exchanges.  Owing  to  the  great  cost  of  the 
larger  plants  they  must  draw  business  from  25  to  50 
miles  from  the  surrounding  fruit  sections,  while  the 
smaller  plants  are  equipped  in  connection  with  the 


TRANSPORTATION  143 

houses  of  each  of  the  local  exchanges  and  draw  fruit 
from  the  area  from  which  the  exchange  operates. 

The  fruit  is  cooled  down  as  soon  as  it  is  brought  in 
from  the  orchard.  After  being  sufficiently  cooled,  it  is 
stored  in  a  cold  room  or  loaded  directly  into  the  cars  and 
sent  off.  Before  the  inauguration  of  the  pre-cooling 
plants,  cars  of  fruit  moving  north  or  east  during  the 
hot  season  would  need  to  be  iced  every  four  days.  In 
some  cases,  every  three  days.  This  would  mean  a  stop 
of  from  two  to  six  hours  at  certain  icing  stations  along 
the  road  to  refill  the  bunkers  of  the  cars.  As  the  rail- 
road companies  always  charge  extra  for  this  it  adds  very 
materially  to  cost  of  transportation  of  the  fruit. 

Pre-cooling  plants,  for  the  most  part,  cool  the  fruit 
down  sufficiently  before  starting  so  that  the  initial  icing 
is  sufficient  to  carry  the  fruit  across  the  continent,  thus 
making  a  saving  both  in  expense  and  time  in  transit. 
In  some  cases  pre-cooling  is  working  so  satisfactorily  that 
fruit  can  be  shipped  across  the  continent  without  any 
ice  in  the  bunkers. 

In  the  car  system  for  pre-cooling  fruit  sufficient  cool- 
ing space  and  track  surface  is  necessary  to  accommodate 
a  full  train  of  fruit  consisting  of  about  32  cars.  From 
four  to  five  hours  are  required  to  cool  down  the  fruit 
in  these  cars  to  a  temperature  of  45  degrees  which  is 
considered  desirable  before  starting  them  on  their  long 
journey.  The  method  of  producing  the  cold  is  similar 
to  the  ammonia  pressure  system  referred  to  in  connec- 
tion with  the  large  public  cold  storage  houses.  One  of 
the  largest  of  these  plants  in  California  contains  over 
35  miles  of  pipe  coils  through  which  brine  with  a  tem- 
perature below  zero  is  circulated.  The  air  surrounding 


144  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

the  pipe  coils  is  cooled  down  and  then  conducted  through 
a  6-foot  tunnel  to  the  outlet  for  each  refrigerator  car. 
The  air  is  driven  by  means  of  a  rotary  fan. 

The  cold  air  is  conducted  into  the  cars  by  means  of 
flexible  couplings,  one  of  which  is  inserted  in  the  vent 
opening  of  either  end  of  the  car.  At  first  the  warm  air 
is  drawn  off  and  discharged  outside  and  then  as  the 
car  is  cooled  down  the  heated  air,  which  is  drawn  from 
the  fruit  in  the  cars,  is  conducted  back  into  the  plant 
where  it  is  again  cooled  down  by  coming  in  contact  with 
the  brine  coils.  Cold  air  is  forced  through  the  cars  at 
the  rate  of  about  8,000  cubic  feet  a  minute,  reaching  a 
velocity  of  from  30  to  40  miles  an  hour.  It  is  first  run 
in  one  direction  for  a  little  while  and  then  reversed,  so 
that  all  parts  of  the  car  will  be  equally  cooled  down. 

In  the  systems  where  the  boxes  are  cooled  before  load- 
ing, the  fruit  is  conducted  through  a  cool  room  by  means 
of  an,  endless  belt.  This  is  so  timed  that,  as  each  pack- 
age makes  one  complete  revolution,  the  fruit  is  cooled 
to  the  desired  temperature.  Thus,  by  varying  the  speed 
of  the  carrier,  to  suit  the  various  sizes  and  kinds  of  fruit 
only  one  handling  is  necessary. 

Moving  the  Fruit. — In  carrying  food  products  to  the 
larger  cities  which  constitute  the  main  markets  of  the 
United  States,  the  bulk  of  the  fruit  must  be  shipped  long 
distances.  In  most  cases  it  must  cross  two  or  three  states 
and  often  go  across  the  entire  continent.  There  is  ap- 
proximately half  the  population  of  the  United  States 
within  a  radius  of  500  miles  of  the  city  of  New  York. 
Hence,  the  bulk  of  the  fruit  products  must  be  sold 
within  that  radius.  The  transportation  problems  then 
enter  largely  into  the  business  of  moving  fruit  long 


TRANSPORTATION  145 

distances  to  the  center  of  consumption.  Where  fruit  is 
shipped  in  carlots,  and  especially  from  the  South  and 
the  West  where  they  run  solid  trains  of  fruit,  the  rail- 
roads try  to  carry  these  upon  passenger  schedule  or 
what  is  commonly  known  as  fast  freight. 

For  the  smaller  shipments  where  fruit  is  carried,  not 
by  the  carload  but  in  connection  with  the  regular  ex- 
press shipments,  they  nearly  always  go  in  the  express 
cars  which  run  in  connection  with  passenger  trains;  but 
where  whole  trains  of  fruit  are  moved,  they  run  on  an 
independent  schedule  which  is  somewhat  slower  than  the 
ordinary  passenger  time.  As  the  quantity  of  fruit 
shipped  varies  considerably  from  season  to  season  and 
from  month  to  month,  the  railroads  have  to  provide  cars 
a  long  time  ahead  and  arrange  traffic  schedules  to  handle 
the  more  perishable  goods.  They  have  to  provide  an 
enormous  number  of  refrigerator  cars,  also  establish 
icing  stations  along  the  route,  and  must  have  large 
terminal  facilities  for  switching  accommodations  at  the 
centers  of  consumption.  Then  they  must  arrange  a 
schedule  for  moving  the  fruit  which  will  allow  it  to  go 
through  on  fast  time  and  have  no  more  delay  than  is 
absolutely  necessary  while  in  transit. 

From  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  it  requires 
from  12  to  14  days  to  move  a  car  of  fruit.  Under  the 
pre-cooling  system  this  has  been  cut  down  two  or  three 
days,  and  now  the  railroads  are  promising  to  make  the 
entire  journey  in  as  short  a  time  as  10  days.  Due  largely 
to  the  stimulating  influence  of  competing  lines,  this  will 
very  materially  affect  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the 
fruit  shipped.  It  has  been  the  habit  in  the  South  and 
the  West  to  pick  the  fruit  far  too  green,  in  order  to 


146  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

allow  for  the  extra  time  in  shipment,  and  such  fruit 
as  grapes  and  peaches  will  never  properly  ripen  when 
picked  too  early. 

Where  the  shipments  can  reach  the  markets  in  a  short 
time,  and  where  better  cold  storage  can  be  arranged  for 
in  transit,  the  fruit  does  not  need  to  be  picked  until 
it  is  more  mature.  Hence,  the  quality  of  the  grapes 
and  peaches  that  come  from  the  West  have  gradually 
improved  from  year  to  year,  until  now  it  is  possible  to 
get  the  more  perishable  fruits  from  all  parts  of  the 
country  in  as  good  condition  as  where  grown.  This  is 
also  true  of  some  of  the  more  perishable  vegetables  from 
the  market  sections  of  the  south. 

Ocean  freight  is  a  question  which,  at  the  present  time, 
is  causing  considerable  discussion  among  the  various 
fruit  shipping  organizations.  As  production  increases, 
outlets  must  be  secured  in  some  of  the  foreign  countries. 
Until  recently,  Europe  has  taken  a  large  proportion  of 
our  exports.  Now  new  outlets  are  sought  in  other  coun- 
tries such  as  South  America,  Australia,  South  Africa  and 
the  Empires  of  Japan  and  China.  As  time  goes  on,  the 
ocean  freight  traffic  will  demand  a  larger  and  more  care- 
ful supervision  in  full  consideration  of  the  fruit  in- 
dustry. 

The  tendency  of  the  past  year  or  two  has  been  to 
increase  the  freight  all  along  the  line,  both  for  con- 
tinental and  oceanic  traffic.  The  increase  of  the  foreign 
*or  export  trade  for  the  more  perishable  fruits  will  mean  a 
corresponding  increase  in  the  facilities  for  handling  this 
fruit  in  ocean  traffic.  Better  cold  storage  facilities  on  the 
boats  must  be  provided,  also  better  means  of  loading  and 
unloading  the  fruit  so  as  to  avoid  injury  in  the  handling. 


TRANSPORTATION  147 

Some  of  the  larger  companies  have  gone  so  far  as  to 
have  their  own  boats  and  have  worked  out  a  very  fine 
system  of  handling  fruit  while  in  transit.  The  distance 
or  length  of  time  fruit  can  be  shipped  will  depend,  of 
course,  upon  the  conditions  of  climate  and  the  kind  and 
variety  of  the  fruit  handled. 

In  a  general  way,  however,  the  duration  of  fruit  after 
picking,  without  some  means  of  cold  storage,  would  be 
about  as  follows  for  the  different  types  of  fruits :  Straw- 
berry, 48  to  72  hours;  raspberry,  48  to  72  hours;  black- 
berry, 72  to  86  hours;  peach,  4  to  8  days;  plum, 
5  to  10  days;  grape,  15  to  30  days;  pear,  36  to  60  days; 
apple,  60  to  90  days ;  and  citrus  fruits,  30  to  60  days. 

By  means  of  cold  storage,  together  with  the  proper 
facilities  for  handling  the  fruit,  these  periods  of  time 
can  be  nearly  doubled.  Where  plums  will  keep  from  5 
to  10  days  in  ordinary  storage  without  ice,  under  the 
best  conditions  they  may  be  kept  in  good  shape  from  10 
to  20  days. 

Loading  Fruit  into  Cars. — The  transportation  of  fruit 
by  rail  calls  for  a  very  careful  consideration  in  the 
methods  of  loading  it  into  the  car  for  shipment.  In  the 
first  place,  all  the  more  perishable  fruits  must  be  so  piled 
or  placed  in  the  cars  that  they  will  have  a  free  circula- 
tion of  air  about  every  package.  In  the  second  place, 
they  must  be  firm  so  that  the  switching  or  jolting  of  the 
car  will  not  displace  them.  Fruit  packages  are  not 
overly  strong,  and  if  once  loosened  before  reaching  their 
destination  are  likely  to  be  broken  and  the  fruit  ruined. 

There  are  three  general  methods  in  use  for  the  pack- 
ing of  boxed  fruit  in  cars.  In  some  cases  they  are  stood 
on  end;  in  others  on  their  side;  and  in  a  few  cases, 


148  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

straight  up.  In  most  of  the  citrus  fruit  shipments 
from  the  West,  the  boxes  are  set  on  end.  These  boxes 
are  longer  than  the  apple  box  and  have  a  partition 
through  the  center.  This  keeps  the  fruit  from  settling 
down  too  much,  and  by  placing  the  package  on  end, 
two  tiers  will  about  fill  the  car  to  its  capacity. 

Most  of  the  apples  that  are  shipped  from  the  north- 
west, the  boxes  are  placed  on  the  side  in  the  car, 
the  long  way  of  the  box  being  placed  the  long  way  of 
the  car.  They  are  given  air  space  for  each  box  on 
the  sides,  top  and  bottom,  which  permits  proper  cir- 
culation. The  ends,  however,  are  placed  together  so  as 
to  avoid  end  play  while  the  cars  are  being  switched  or 
jolted. 

In  the  case  of  the  packages  for  cherries  or  grapes  or 
other  kinds  of  small  fruits,  where  the  boxes  are  made 
more  rigid,  several  are  placed  together  in  one  larger 
package  like  the  four-box  grape  carriers  that  come  from 
the  West.  These  are  nearly  always  set  straight  up,  leav- 
ing the  air  space,  not  between  each  separate  box  but  be- 
tween each  set  of  six  boxes  that  are  set  together.  In 
barrels  no  special  precaution  is  necessary  because  each 
package  is  rigid  enough  to  support  the  contents.  They 
are  usually  set  on  end,  two  barrels  high.  In  some  cases 
they  are  laid  on  the  side,  but  this  is  not  usually  desirable 
except  where  transportation  is  by  boat.  Most  of  the 
ocean  shipments  of  barreled  fruit  are  piled  on  the  side 
instead  of  on  end. 

In  loading  fruit  into  cars,  a  layer  is  placed  on  the 
floor  of  the  car  in  the  position  desired  and  then  1  x  l1/^- 
inch  cleats,  long  enough  to  reach  across  the  car,  are 
nailed  to  the  ends  of  each  box  and  fastened  to  the  sides 


TRANSPORTATION  149 

of  the  car.  One  of  these  cleats  is  placed  between  each 
tier  of  boxes.  This  will  prevent  both  end  and  side  play, 
also  separate  each  box  sufficiently  for  the  proper  circula- 
tion of  air.  Each  end  of  the  car  is  loaded  in  this  way 
until  the  door  in  the  center  is  reached  and  then,  instead 
of  filling  this  space  with  fruit,  it  is  left  open,  each  half 
being  braced  by  itself.  To  do  this,  2  x  4-inch  uprights 
are  placed  in  front  of  each  row  of  boxes  and  nailed  to 
the  floor  and  roof  of  the  car.  Then  between  these  and 
across  the  center  space  are  put  braces  to  prevent  the 
giving  and  loosening  of  the  load. 

The  capacity  of  refrigerator  cars  varies  in  accord- 
ance with  the  length  of  the  car.  Usually  they  are  made 
in  three  different  lengths,  36,  40  and  42  feet.  For 
apples  and  citrus  fruit,  the  capacity  of  these  is  about 
as  follows:  Thirty-six-foot  car  for  apples,  500  boxes; 
citrus,  336.  Forty-foot  car  for  apples,  550  boxes;  cit- 
rus, 384.  Forty-two-foot  car  for  apples,  600  boxes; 
citrus,  409.  Where  half  boxes  are  shipped  instead  of 
the  regular  size  the  number  will  be  about  50%  greater. 
"When  apples  are  shipped  in  barrels,  the  cars  will  hold 
from  150  to  200  barrels. 

In  ocean  traffic,  there  is,  of  course,  no  limit  to  the 
number  of  boxes  or  barrels  which  may  be  shipped  on 
some  of  the  larger  vessels.  It  is  not  infrequent  to  find 
from  40,000  to  60,000  barrels  sent  to  Europe  by  one 
boat.  While  the  motion  of  the  larger  boats  is  not  usu- 
ally very  great,  considerable  damage  is  often  done  to 
fruit  shipped  by  water.  Most  of  this  is  probably  done 
in  the  loading  and  unloading  of  the  boat  rather  than 
from  the  movement  of  the  ship.  The  packages  are  not 
ordinarily  made  rigid  when  thus  shipped.  Most  of 


150  MODERN  FRUIT   MARKETING 

such   fruit   goes  into   the  hold   of   the   ship   as  ballast 
rather  than  in  any  other  way. 

On  the  smaller  boats  for  coast  or  river  traffic,  fruit  is 
usually  loaded  by  truckers  who  run  the  packages  down 
the  gangway  into  the  freight  quarters,  but  for  the  larger 
ocean  boats,  the  packages  are  hoisted  in  a  net  run- 
ning from  5  to  15  barrels  at  one  time.  These  are 


Fig.   107.— EFFICIENT  TRANSPORTATION   ON   GOOD  ROADS 
FOR   IS   OR  20   MILES 

lifted  by  the  donkey  engine  and  lowered  into  the  hold. 
Where  this  is  carefully  done,  it  causes  little  injury  to 
the  fruit,  but  where  no  special  pains  is  taken,  fruit  can 
easily  be  spoiled  or  badly  bruised. 

"Water  traffic  is  likely,  in  the  near  future,  to  play  a 
very  important  role  in  competition  with  railroad  ship- 
ment of  fruit.  The  Panama  Canal  will  aid  materi- 
ally in  getting  considerable  quantities  of  fruit  products 
from  the  "Western  to  the  Eastern  markets.  For  perish- 


TRANSPORTATION  ir>l 

able  fruits,  it  will  not  be  possible  to  ship  by  way  of  the 
Panama  Canal.  For  other  fruits  that  will  stand  from 
20  to  30  days  or  more  before  using,  the  canal  can  easily 
be  made  use  of.  From  the  Pacific  Coast  via  the  canal  to 
New  York  and  Boston,  will  require  probably  a  minimum 
of  20  days  and  at  a  total  freight  cost  of  half  of  the 
overland  shipments.. 

"Where  the  fruit  grower  is  fortunate  enough  to  have  a 
good  local  market,  he  has  great  advantage  over  distant 
shippers.  Where  roads  are  good  and  the  haul  is  not 
over  20  or  30  miles,  motor  trucks  can  be  used.  In  many 
places  in  the  East  these  are  now  strong  competitors  of 
the  transportation  companies.  Where  the  business  is 
sufficient  to  warrant  the  first  expense  of  a  motor  truck 
a  considerable  saving  in  time  and  money  can  be  had 
over  the  use  of  railroads. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

FRUIT  MARKETS 

Location  of  Markets. — It  has  been  only  in  the  more 
recent  years  that  the  general  fruit-grower  or  orchardist 
has  taken  any  interest  in  the  selling  of  his  fruit  products. 
The  old  custom  was  to  grow  the  fruit  the  best  he  could 
and  then  turn  it  over  to  some  other  agency  to  dispose 
of.  If  buyers  did  not  appear  when  the  crop  was  ready, 
the  only  alternative  was  to  send  the  fruit  to  some  com- 
mission man  and  then  trust  to  luck  for  results.  The 
present  tendency  is  for  the  grower  to  take  an  active 
interest  in  the  disposition  of  the  fruit,  and  in  many 
cases  do  the  actual  selling  himself. 

At  present  there  are  three  well-defined  channels 
through  which  the  fruit  passes  to  the  consumer.  These 
may  be  defined  as  the  "home  market,"  the  city  market 
and  the  foreign  market.  The  home  market  is  the  town, 
city  or  village  within  a  few  miles  of  the  place  of  produc- 
tion, where  deliveries  may  be  made  direct  by  the  grower. 
The  city  markets  call  for  the  transporting  of  fruit  by 
rail  or  water  and  constitute,  by  far,  the  most  important 
outlet.  Probably  75%  of  the  fruit  actually  sold  is 
consumed  in  the  city  markets. 

The  foreign  markets  are  those  in  other  countries  be- 
sides the  United  States.  Even  our  neighbor,  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada,  where  fruit  is  shipped  across  the  line 

152 


154  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

only  a  few  hours'  journey  would  be  considered  a  foreign 
market.  These  are  of  necessity  more  or  less  arbitrary 
classifications  and  will  depend  more  upon  the  way  in 
which  the  fruit  is  handled  than  upon  the  location  or 
size  of  the  cities  where  the  fruit  is  sold. 

Selling  at  Home. — Most  producers  believe  that  they 
can  best  dispose  of  their  crop  in  their  own  immediate 
neighborhood  providing  the  quantity  produced  is  not 
more  than  can  be  consumed  in  their  particular  location. 
A  good  many  things  may  be  said  in  favor  of  the  home 
market  and  the  consensus  of  opinion  among  practically 
all  growers  is  that  the  home  market  is  the  best  where  the 
supply  is  not  too  large.  In  the  larger  fruit-growing  sec- 
tions, much  larger  quantities  are  produced  than  could 
ever  be  consumed  at  home  or  even  in  the  larger  cities 
of  the  surrounding  territory,  hence  shipments  for  long 
distances  to  the  Eastern  markets  must  be  relied  upon. 

When  selling  at  home  several  principles  enter  in, 
which  do  not  apply  in  the  same  way  to  long  distance  ship- 
ments: (1)  This  method  eliminates  all  possibility  of  the 
profits  going  to  some  middleman.  (2)  It  gives  the 
grower  a  chance  to  use  his  own  personality  by  getting 
acquainted  with  customers.  (3)  It  allows  him  to  under- 
stand their  wants  and  needs  and  better  enables  him  to 
grow  each  year  their  particular  requirements.  It  also 
gives  him  a  chance  to  develop  his  individual  ability 
along  various  lines.  He  comes  in  direct  competition  with 
his  neighbor  producers,  and  gives  him  a  keener  business 
insight  into  the  ways  and  means  of  conducting  a  busi- 
ness. 

In  some  cases  where  it  is  not  convenient  to  sell  direct 
to  the  consumers  it  is  occasionally  possible  to  sell  to  the 


FRUIT    MARKETS  155 

retailers  or  to  the  small  grocery  stores  in  the  home 
towns.  Arrangements  can  be  made  ahead  of  time 
for  the  grower  to  produce  such  material  as  can  be 
sold  readily  by  the  retailer.  This  does  away  with  con- 
siderable personal  canvassing  and  gives  the  grower  more 
time  to  attend  to  the  producing  end  of  the  business. 
Furthermore,  it  often  promotes  a  more  friendly  feeling 
between  the  producers  and  the  retailers  because  where 
the  grower  retails  his  own  produce  he  becomes  a  com- 
petitor of  the  retail  stores,  hence  often  they  do  not  work 
in  harmony.  Where  retailers  are  patronized  direct  the 
grower  cannot  expect  as  large  returns  as  from  the  sell- 
ing of  his  own  goods  to  the  consumer  because  the  retailer 
must  then  make  his  profit  which  on  the  more  perishable 
fruits  runs  from  25  to  100%  of  the  value. 

Another  method  often  resorted  to  by  the  producer  is 
to  sell  direct  to  buyers  in  the  home  town.  The  more 
staple  articles  of  fruit  and  vegetables  can  often  be  dis- 
posed of  this  way.  The  buyer  then  assumes  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  fruit  and  does  the  shipping  or  selling  at 
his  own  risks.  The  grower  settles  his  account  then  with 
the  buyer  and  gets  his  money  before  the  goods  are 
shipped  out  of  town.  This  occasionally  is  a  very  satis- 
factory method,  but  often  the  buyer  is  well  posted  on  the 
market  conditions  and  does  not  presume  to  take  any 
great  risk,  hence  the  price  offered  for  the  goods  is  usually 
very  much  less  than  could  be  realized  if  the  grower 
choose  to  handle  the  sales  himself. 

Selling  Away  From  Home. — Where  fruit  is  shipped 
beyond  the  distance  that  it  is  possible  to  deliver  by  the 
grower,  then  it  must  be  trusted  in  the  hands  of  some 
third  party.  Often  the  railroad  companies  or  boat  lines. 


156  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

assume  a  large  part  of  this  duty.  Such  fruit  may  be 
handled  through  the  medium  of  the  commission  man  who 
then  takes  his  pro-rata  toll  for  doing  the  work.  It  may 
also  be  sold  through  certain  cooperative  organizations 
controlled  by  the  growers  themselves,  but  this  also  costs 
a  certain  amount  and  though  usually  less  than  the  com- 
mission house  plan  requires  a  certain  percentage  of  the 
gross  sales. 

In  some  cases  it  is  possible  for  producers  to  cater  to 
a  private  trade  where  the  distance  for  shipping  is  not  too 
great,  such  as  summer  resort  places,  large  hotels,  club 
houses,  etc.  Arrangements  are  made,  usually  several 
months  ahead  of  time,  to  deliver  certain  quantities  and 
kinds  of  produce  to  the  managers  of  such  places.  They 
always  demand  the  very  best  that  can  be  had  and  only 
growers  who  are  thoroughly  versed  on  producing  the 
best  can  expect  to  do  very  much  business  with  such 
private  trade. 

There  is  also  the  possibility  of  putting  the  fruit  in 
storage  when  sent  away  from  home.  This  will  depend 
upon  the  seller's  knowledge  of  market  conditions  and, 
although  he  assumes  the  entire  risk,  he  often  is  suffi- 
ciently informed  and  can  profit  by  so  doing.  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly interesting  to  contrast  these  two  methods  of 
selling  produce  either  at  home  or  shipping  away.  They 
have  many  points  in  common,  yet  differ  widely  in  a  great 
many  respects.  There  is  no  means  of  estimating  just 
what  quantity  or  per  cent  of  fruit  is  consumed  at  home 
and  what  part  sent  away,  but  outside  of  the  amount  con- 
sumed by  the  growers  themselves  it  is  a  fair  estimate 
to  say  that  75%  of  the  fruit  products  are  sold  upon 
the  larger  market.  This  means  that,  by  far,  the  larger 


FRUIT   MARKETS  157 

part  of  the  fruit  must  be  handled  through  the  wholesale 
or  larger  markets. 

The  net  profits  received  from  such  sales  are  usually 
smaller  than  those  from  the  home  market.  There  are  so 
many  middlemen  and  agents  that  must  receive  their 
quota  of  the  sales  price,  which  cuts  down  the  profit 
much  smaller  than  when  sold  at  home.  The  competition 
is  also  greater.  The  fruits  in  the  large  cities  come  in 
competition  with  fruits  from  widely  different  sections. 
Not  only  do  they  come  in  competition  with  the  same 
kind  of  fruits  but  also  with  other  fruits  from  the 
tropics  and  from  the  warmer  part  of  the  United  States. 

While  the  shipper  or  grower  of  a  certain  commodity 
might  not  have  any  competition  among  the  different 
fruits  in  his  home  market  he  might  have  considerable  in 
the  larger  markets  of  the  cities.  When  growing  fruit 
for  the  home  market  a  very  different  grade  and  quality 
of  fruit  is  required.  The  number  and  kinds  of  varieties 
grown  is  much  larger.  Home  markets  usually  demand 
varieties  of  fruit  from  the  very  earliest  of  the  season  to 
those  that  will  extend  through  the  winter  and  keep  late 
into  the  spring.  This  would  mean  that  the  grower  must 
select  more  different  varieties  than  he  would  for  the 
city  market. 

Most  of  the  requirements  of  the  large  markets  are  for 
standard  varieties  of  fruit.  This  does  not  mean  that  a 
purchaser  cannot  buy  more  different  kinds  of  fruit  in  the 
large  cities  than  he  can  in  the  small  ones,  but  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  grower  he  would  want  a  less  number 
of  varieties  for  shipping  to  the  large  markets  than  for 
home  use.  The  quality  of  the  fruit  varies  in  two  or 
three  different  ways.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  most 


158  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

growers  shipping  to  a  large  market  will  send  away  the 
best  fruit  they  have.  Any  one  that  is  familiar  with  the 
South  or  with  the  West,  especially  California,  where 
many  fruits  of  sub-tropical  nature  come  from,  can  by 
walking  through  the  markets  of  New  York,  Boston,  or 
Chicago,  find  better  fruit  on  the  markets  most  any 
day  than  he  has  observed  offered  for  sale  in  the  locali- 
ties in  which  the  fruit  is  grown. 

The  quality  of  the  fruit  in  regard  to  flavor  and  degree 
of  palatability  is  frequently  much  better  when  the  home 
market  is  patronized.  Fruit  requiring  long  hauls  is 
often  picked  before  it  is  fully  matured,  hence  does  not 
develop  as  high  a  quality  when  sold  in  the  larger  markets, 
especially  is  this  true  of  the  Southern  and  Western 
fruits.  Fruits  like  apples  or  pears  to  ship  well  and 
carry  a  long  distance  must  have  certain  qualities  of  tex- 
ture and  thickness  of  skin  to  enable  them  to  be  shipped. 
This  condition  is  often  associated  with  poor  eating  or 
cooking  qualities  of  the  fruit  itself.  So  the  better  va- 
rieties are  grown  for  the  home  market ;  those  which  have 
the  better  quality  and  flavor.  Many  such  varieties  could 
not  be  used  for  general  market  fruits  because  of  the  in- 
ability to  stand  rough  handling  or  long  shipments. 

Transportation  must  also  be  considered  when  sending 
fruit  away  from  home.  Arrangements  must  be  provided 
for  the  loading  and  handling  of  cars,  also  for  the  track- 
age and  warehouse  space  necessary  on  the  selling  end 
of  the  line.  This  requires  considerable  skill.  Where  a 
large  quantity  of  fruit  is  handled  the  services  of  a  special 
agent  who  has  made  a  study  of  these  conditions  is  re- 
quired. Where  foreign  shipments  are  contemplated, 
ocean  traffic,  freight  rate,  tariffs,  etc.,  must  be  studied 


FRUIT  MARKETS  159 

out  and  it  is  not  always  possible  for  growers  of  fruit  to 
be  in  a  position  to  properly  handle  such,  matters.  Hence, 
the  common  advice  among  small  growers  is  to  sell  at 
home  what  he  can  and  let  the  rest  go. 

There  are  a  few  well-known  faults  of  producers  who 
sell  at  home.  If  he  has  a  surplus  he  ships  it  away,  and 
usually  the  best  fruit  is  what  is  shipped.  Unless  there  is 
a  large  quantity  of  similar  kinds  of  fruit  grown  he  asks 
the  retailer  or  consumer  in  his  home  town  the  same 
price  which  he  would  have  to  pay  if  he  bought  from  the 
stores.  Often  the  fruit  that  he  has  sent  away  to  other 
markets  will  bring  him  somewhat  less  than  that  which 
he  has  sold  at  home.  While  this  is  recognized  as  good 
business  acumen  it  is  a  question  whether  it  is  conducive 
to  the  best  interest  of  the  fruit  grower. 

Supply  and  Demand. — The  two  words  "Supply  and 
Demand"  have  been  much  used  and  much  abused  by 
many  of  the  writers  on  market  questions.  There  are  a 
number  of  conditions  that  effect  supply  that  are  in  no 
way  related  to  demand  and  the  converse  is  true  as  well. 
When  the  supply  exceeds  the  demand  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  that  there  is  an  over-production.  It  simply 
indicates  that  there  is  more  fruit  offered  at  any  one  time 
than  there  is  a  market  for.  It  may  also  mean  that  the 
method  of  distribution  is  at  fault,  or  because  of  the  in- 
accessibility of  certain  markets  the  supply  can  not  be 
reached.  On  the  other  hand,  because  there  is  a  heavy 
demand  for  certain  kinds  of  fruit  it  does  not  necessarily 
indicate  a  lack  of  supply.  The  word  over-production 
should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  that  there  is  too  much 
fruit  grown  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  consuming  public, 
because  this  condition  has  never  been  reached. 


160  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Among  the  factors  that  influence  the  supply  of  fruit 
may  be  mentioned  the  following:  (1)  Weather  condi- 
tions. (2)  Skill  necessary  to  grow  the  fruit.  (3)  The 
climatic  zones.  (4)  Cost  of  production.  (5)  High 
market  prices.  (6)  Transportation  facilities.  (7)  Per- 
ishability of  the  fruit.  (8)  The  storage  problem.  The 
first  or  weather  condition  probably  accounts  for  the 
greatest  fluctuation  in  supply.  Where  certain  fruits  are 
grown  over  a  large  area  there  is  seldom  a  total  crop 
failure  due  to  weather  conditions. 

On  the  other  hand,  limited  fruit  enterprises  like  the 
almond  industry  of  the  West  have  occasional  years  of 
almost  absolute  failure  due  to  peculiarities  of  climatic 
conditions.  In  other  years  it  may  be  unusually  good, 
hence  we  have  the  fluctuation  in  the  fruit  crops.  For 
example,  the  apple  yield  has  ranged  from  25,000,000 
barrels  in  one  season  to  about  65,000,000  the  next,  and 
this  uncertainty  and  variation  cannot  help  but  influ- 
ence to  a  large  extent  the  price  paid  for  fruit. 

The  skill  necessary  to  grow  fruit  is  a  potent  factor  in 
influencing  the  supply.  The  more  skill  required  to  pro- 
duce a  fruit  the  higher  priced  the  product,  and  since 
extreme  high  prices  are  not  long  in  demand  the  more 
skill  necessary  to  grow  any  particular  kind  of  fruit, 
the  less  the  supply  of  that  fruit.  The  climatic  zones  influ- 
ence market  conditions  so  that  it  restricts  certain  fruits 
to  small  areas.  Where  the  area  that  will  be  favorable  to 
any  particular  fruit  is  limited,  the  supply  must  be 
limited  or  the  fruit  imported  from  more  favorable  for- 
eign countries. 

The  cost  of  production  very  materially  influences  the 
quantity  of  fruit  offered  for  sale.  Where  the  cost  equals 


FRUIT   MARKETS  161 

or  exceeds  the  market  price  the  incentive  to  produce 
fruit  is  lost,  and  unless  better  facilities  can  be  found 
for  growing  in  those  particular  localities  production 
must  be  discontinued.  High  market  prices  always  stim- 
ulate production,  hence  the  supply.  Invariably  the 
fluctuation  of  market  prices  for  fruit,  due  to  climatic 
conditions,  will  stimulate  interest  and  when  prices  are 
high  the  incentive  is  for  the  orchardist  to  set  out  more 
trees  and  increase  his  producing  capacity. 

Transportation  is  entering  more  and  more  into  the 
supply  every  year.  There  are  excellent  fruit-growing 
sections  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  where  fruit 
cannot  be  grown  simply  because  transportation  to  a 
desirable  market  is  not  to  be  had.  In  fact,  some  of  our 
best  fruit-growing  sections  in  the  far  West  are  yet  un- 
touched because  there  are  no  profitable  outlets  to  get 
the  fruit  to  market.  Each  year  some  new  section  is 
brought  into  the  market  by  better  railroad  facilities 
resulting  in  an  increase  acreage,  thus  stimulating  the 
supply  for  a  given  fruit. 

Perishability  is  one  of  the  chief  factors  influencing 
supply.  Where  better  storage  or  transportation  can  be 
had,  more  perishable  fruits  can  be  kept  through  longer 
seasons,  or  shipped  a  longer  distance.  So  the  length 
of  time  certain  perishable  fruits  appear  upon  the  market 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  cold  storage  facilities  for 
that  particular  place. 

Where  factors  influencing  demands  are  considered 
there  are  several  conditions  that  enter  in:  (1)  The 
prosperous  condition  of  the  country.  (2)  The  quality 
of  fruit  offered.  (3)  Price  set.  (4)  Popular  use  of 
the  fruit  as  a  food.  (5)  Knowledge  of  the  fruit.  (6) 


162  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

The  seasons  of  the  year.  (7)  The  supply  of  other 
fruits.  It  is  probable  that  the  conditions  of  the  country 
effect  the  fruit  industry  as  much,  if  not  more,  than  any 
other  farm  product.  If  the  country  is  prosperous  every- 
body can  afford  fruit.  If  the  country  is  not,  then  the 
partial  luxuries  which  include  many  of  our  better  fruits 
are  the  first  to  be  dispensed  with,  in  an  effort  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  living. 

The  bulk  of  the  fruit  in  the  larger  cities  is  sold  to 
working  men — the  ones  who  draw  salaries  by  the  week  or 
month,  as  clerks  in  factories,  shops,  etc.  When  these 
people  are  all  busy  earning  good  wages  they  all  spend 
their  money  freely  for  fruits  and  are  willing  to  pay  a 
good  price  for  good  fruit.  On  the  other  hand,  if  busi- 
ness is  dull  many  are  often  out  of  work.  If  the  con- 
ditions, in  general,  are  not  encouraging  the  demand  for 
fruit  falls  off  on  account  of  the  reduced  ability  to  buy. 

The  quality  of  the  fruit  offered  effects  the  demand 
materially.  Most  people  are  willing  to  pay  a  good  price 
for  good  fruit.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  who 
wait  for  a  lower  market  price  because  of  a  surplus  or  an 
unusual  heavy  shipment,  and  where  the  quality  is  good 
there  is  always  a  ready  market.  Where  the  quality  is 
poor  the  price  runs  down  and  the  demand  usually  be- 
comes much  less.  The  price  asked  for  the  fruit  also 
effects  the  demand.  Certain  organizations  establish  their 
own  price.  If  their  managers  put  it  too  high,  buyers 
will  not  take  the  fruit.  If  the  cost  of  production  is  so 
high  that  the  price  must  be  put  where  the  fruit  becomes 
a  luxury,  then  the  demand  will  again  fall  off. 

Certain  fruits  are  used  largely  in  the  regular  diet  as 
a  food.  Fruits  like  the  apple,  banana,  orange,  etc.,  have 


FRUIT   MARKETS  163 

become  so  popular  in  the  home  diet  that  they  are  no 
longer  accepted  as  a  luxury  but  are  demanded  by  the 
regular  household,  hence  a  demand  is  always  present  for 
this  class  of  fruit.  Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  in- 
crease the  popularity  of  certain  fruits  for  food,  and  this 
has  always  resulted  in  an  increased  demand.  The  ac- 
quaintanceship or  knowledge  of  the  fruit  by  the  buyer 
has  a  surprising  influence  upon  the  demand  of  any  fruit. 

Most  of  the  buyers  in  the  cities  do  not  know  that 
there  are  more  than  five  or  six  kinds  of  apples.  Per- 
sonally they  may  not  be  acquainted  with  more  than 
two  or  three.  Even  most  of  the  fruit  growers  who  are 
familiar  with  apples  and  who  see  upon  their  markets 
large  numbers  of  bananas  recognize,  perhaps,  two  types, 
while  the  growers  of  those  bananas  in  their  native  habitat 
can  easily  recognize  40.  So  the  knowledge  of  the  variety 
from  the  buyer's  standpoint  effects  the  demand.  No 
person  is  willing  to  go  into  a  store  and  ask  for  fruit 
without  knowing  just  what  he  wants,  hence  without 
bothering  to  name  the  variety  he  buys  largely  from  ap- 
pearance or  looks.  Fruits  that  have  a  good  appearance, 
nicely  packed,  are  attractive  and  are  the  ones  demanded 
by  the  buyer  in  the  large  market. 

When  ordering  fruit  from  the  retailer  over  the  tele- 
phone it  is  a  common  occurrence  to  have  the  groceryman 
or  retailer  ask  the  customer  what  varieties  they  want. 
The  buyer  unable  to  name  more  than  one  or  two  kinds 
selects  the  one  that  is  best  known  and  well  established 
throughout  the  whole  country.  The  demand  for  cer- 
tain well-known  varieties  is  always  much  greater  than 
for  the  less-known  kinds,  even  though  they  may  not  be 
as  good  as  some  of  the  others  for  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  to  be  used. 


164  MODERN  FRUIT   MARKETING 

The  seasons  of  the  year  effect  the  demand  in  that 
most  of  the  buyers  in  the  large  cities  want  fruit  only  in 
its  normal  season.  In  the  spring,  everyone  is  anxious 
to  get  strawberries,  and  while  they  may  be  had  later  in 
the  year,  the  demand  is  greatest  in  the  spring  because 
of  the  habit  of  people  buying  fruit  only  when  in  season. 
This  has  led  producers  to  a  great  rush  to  get  fruit  for 
the  early  market,  realizing  that  the  prices  would  be 
higher  because  of  the  increased  demand.  This  has  re- 
acted unfavorably  against  some  of  the  Southern  states 
so  that  they,  in  their  haste  to  get  fruit  on  the  early 
market,  have  permitted  themselves  to  pick  it  before  it  is 
sufficiently  matured.  As  a  consequence,  the  flavor  and 
quality  of  the  fruit  was  a  disappointment  to  the  pur- 
chaser and,  through  this  means,  certain  fruit  districts 
in  the  South  and  the  West  have  become  unpopular. 

Lastly,  the  supply  of  other  fruits  affects  the  demand 
through  the  price  of  the  various  kinds.  For  example, 
when  oranges  can  be  had  more  cheaply  on  the  general 
market  than  apples,  most  of  the  consumers  will  buy  the 
oranges ;  when  the  apples  become  cheaper  they  will  buy 
those,  and  when  bananas  are  reduced  below  either  or- 
anges or  apples  the  probability  is  that  the  demand  will 
increase  for  the  bananas  and  decrease  for  the  others. 

When  considering  the  price  paid  for  fruit,  several 
important  factors  appear  which  are  also  associated  with 
supply  and  demand.  These  could  be  enumerated  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  Quantity  of  fruit  offered.  (2)  Quality  of 
fruit  offered.  (3)  General  prosperity  of  the  country. 
(4)  The  attractiveness  of  the  fruit.  (5)  The  condition 
of  the  market. 

If  the  quantity  of  the  fruit  is  large  the  price  is  apt 


FRUIT   MARKETS  165 

to  drop.  If  the  quality  is  good  the  price  will  go  up, 
and  if  poor,  the  opposite.  General  prosperity  of  the 
country  affects  the  price  in  the  same  way  as  it  does  the 
demand,  for  as  the  demand  increases  the  price  usually 
goes  up.  Attractiveness  of  the  fruit  has  a  very  material 
effect  upon  the  price  asked.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  the  majority  of  the  consumers  in  the  cities  buy  on 
looks  rather  than  upon  knowledge  of  the  fruit  itself. 
Hence  the  package  in  which  fruit  is  placed  has  become 
recognized  as  a  part  of  the  real  value  of  the  contents. 
This  is  true  to  such  an  extent  that  in  fruit  shows  the 
judges  and  the  management  of  those  shows  attribute 
approximately  a  third  of  the  value  on  the  market  to  the 
attractive  manner  in  which  the  fruit  is  put  up. 

The  conditions  of  the  market  are  important  because 
the  things  which  affect  the  market  will  also  affect  the 
price.  Markets  have  their  good  days  and  their  bad  days. 
Saturday  or  Friday  afternoon  are  usually  recognized  as 
good  days  for  markets  because  of  the  stocking-up  of  the 
household  for  the  big  Sunday  dinner.  Correspondingly, 
Monday  is  usually  a  bad  day.  There  are  fewer  calls 
for  fruit  than  on  other  days  in  the  week.  Markets 
gradually  increase  in  their  condition  up  until  Friday 
and  Saturday  and  then  fall  again  early  Monday  morn- 
ing. 

Days  just  before  legal  holidays  are  always  good  market 
days.  The  week  preceding  Thanksgiving  or  Christmas 
or  New  Year's  are  correspondingly  good  in  influencing 
the  market.  The  days  following  legal  holidays  are  cor- 
respondingly poor.  Weeks  of  rainy  weather,  effects  of 
frost  injury  and  conditions  of  the  country  materially 
influence  the  price.  Instances  in  which  grapes  of  the 


166  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

Eastern  states  have  yielded  enormous  quantities,  a  frost 
appearing  doing  considerable  damage  to  the  grapes 
before  most  of  them  were  harvested  has  often  jumped 
the  price  from  10  to  20%  in  one  day. 

Fluctuations  in  temperatures  often  influence  the  price. 
Large  quantities  of  fruit  may  be  sent  into  the  market 
in  cool  weather.  If  an  unusually  warm  spell  appears 
the  fruits  will  not  keep  well,  hence,  must  be  disposed 
of  quickly.  The  price  is  correspondingly  reduced  in 
order  to  mo*ve  the  fruit.  Then  always  the  perishability 
or  the  relatively  short  keeping  time  of  the  fruit  itself 
forces  the  sellers  to  quick  action.  The  price  is  always 
regulated  so  as  to  move  the  fruit  within  a  given  time 
because,  if  it  is  not  moved,  it  becomes  a  total  loss  and 
no  one  gets  any  value  from  it. 


CHAPTER  IX 

SELLING  AGENCIES 

Commission  House. — The  oldest  and  perhaps  the  best 
established  method  of  selling  produce  in  the  United  States 
is  through  the  medium  of  the  commission  man.  At 
present  much  discussion  and  considerable  criticism  has 
been  heaped  upon  the  commission  man  and  his  ways  of 
doing  business.  Some  of  it  has  been  just,  but  perhaps 
more  of  it  has  been  unjust.  The  commission  house  theo- 
retically, is  perhaps  an  unnecessary  institution,  but  prac- 
tically no  good  way  has  been  found  to  eliminate  him. 
While  he  is  in  a  measure  a  necessary  evil,  he  is  still  a 
very  important  factor  in  the  selling  and  handling  of 
fruit  and  farm  produce.  Commission  houses  are  so 
situated  that  they  can  handle  either  small  shipments  or 
car  lots.  There  are  a  great  many  fruit  growers  through- 
out the  country  who  are  not  associated  with  any  organi- 
zation and  who  have  only  a  very  small  part  of  a  carload 
to  ship  at  any  one  time,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  com- 
mission houses  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to  sell 
their  fruit. 

How  Fruit  is  Handled. — The  methods  of  doing  busi- 
ness through  the  commission  houses  would  be  about  as 
follows :  Many  of  the  houses  send  out  solicitors  or  trav- 
eling agents.  They  go  from  place  to  place  requesting 
that  certain  shipments  of  fruit  be  made  to  houses  in 
the  cities.  Often  they  leave  stencils  with  name  and  ad- 

167 


168  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

dress  for  labelling  the  boxes,  and  in  various  ways  make 
it  convenient  for  the  grower  to  patronize  them.  They 
never  offer  to  quote  any  price  or  to  advance  cash  for 
orders  but  always  solicit  shipments  to  be  made  direct  to 
the  commission  house. 

The  grower  picks  and  packs  his  fruit  according  to  the 
methods  in  use  in  his  particular  locality  and  places  the 
address  of  the  house  on  the  packages,  takes  them  to  the 
railroad  and  sends  them  off.  In  a  day  or  two  after  the 
goods  are  sent  the  grower  should  receive  a  card  of 
acknowledgment  from  the  commission  man  and  then, 
a  little  later,  after  the  goods  are  sold,  he  receives  a  bill 
of  sale.  Where  this  bill  of  sale  is  properly  made  out 
it  is  an  itemized  list  of  all  the  different  kinds,  grades 
and  varieties  of  fruit,  and  if  there  is  one  variety  that 
sells  in  lots  for  different  prices  this  is  also  to  be  listed. 

Commission  houses  get  their  name  from  the  fact  that 
they  charge  a  certain  per  cent  or  commission  on  the  gross 
receipts  of  the  fruit  sold.  This  is  usually  10%,  but  in 
some  cases  they  operate  as  low  as  7  or  even  5%.  When 
the  fruit  is  sold  the  commission  is  deducted  from  the 
gross  amount  of  the  sale,  then  the  freight  is  deducted, 
and  if  there  is  any  cartage  or  other  charges,  that  is  also 
deducted  and  a  check  drawn  for  the  balance  and  for- 
warded to  the  producer.  Along  with  this  goes  a  receipted 
freight  bill  from  the  railroad  or  transportation  com- 
pany showing  the  amount  of  freight  paid  for  the  ship- 
ment. It  is  not  customary  for  most  commission  houses 
to  do  this,  but  the  grower  or  shipper  is  entitled  to  it, 
and  if  it  is  not  forwarded  with  the  bill  of  sale  the  com- 
mission man  should  be  requested  to  send  one. 

There  are  several  things  for  the  producer  to  consider 


SELLING  AGENCIES  169 

before  selecting  a  commission  house.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  always  good  judgment  to  find  out  as  much  about 
the  various  commission  houses  as  possible  and  get  ac- 
quainted with  the  man  in  charge  of  the  business. 
Where  a  grower  ships  considerable  produce  to  any  one 
commission  house  it  is  well  to  take  a  trip  to  the  city  and 
familiarize  himself  with  the  conditions  as  far  as  possible ; 
also  with  the  way  in  which  the  house  handles  his  busi- 
ness. Where  a  grower  has  only  a  few  dollars  of  produce 
each  month  this  would  not  be  advisable,  but  where  it 
amounts  up  to  several  hundred  dollars  during  the  sea- 
son it  certainly  is  time  and  money  well  spent. 

The  wise  shipper  probably  takes  several  of  the  produce 
papers  which  carry  advertisements  of  various  commis- 
sion houses.  After  selecting  several  he  will  make  a  trip 
to  the  city  and  investigate  the  reliability  of  each  one. 
He  can  do  this,  first,  by  getting  acquainted  with  the  men 
and  judging  their  character  from  observation.  Second, 
he  can  ask  for  bank  references  and,  by  looking  these  up, 
determine  if  there  is  sufficient  capital  involved  to  insure 
prompt  payments.  He  also  wants  to  know  if  the  com- 
mission house  is  a  member  of  the  National  League  of 
Commission  Merchants.  He  can  get  information  con- 
cerning them  through  that  organization.  When  a  house 
is  once  selected  it  is  a  good  policy  to  stay  with  it  through 
the  season  and  unless  some  particular  line  of  fruit  de- 
mands a  change  it  is  well  to  ship  the  same  varieties  from 
year  to  year. 

Along  with  this  goes  certain  rules  which  the  producer 
does  well  to  observe.  First,  it  is  well  to  have  a  brand  or 
trade-mark  for  the  fruit  packages.  It  has  often  been 
observed  by  the  people  who  are  opposed  to  organiza- 


170  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

tions,  that  those  who  ship  through  such  organizations  lose 
their  individuality,  but  when  dealing  with  commission 
men  the  individuality  of  the  grower  has  a  chance  for  all 
the  expression  which  he  is  able  to  give  it.  Therefore, 
by  special  care  in  the  use  of  trade-marks  or  brands 
placed  on  packages  one  can  often  work  up  a  reliable  or 
enviable  reputation  for  his  fruit. 

Second,  it  is  well  to  place  confidence  in  the  commis- 
sion men  with  whom  a  grower  is  dealing  and  ask  advice 
regarding  certain  shipments  and  kinds  of  fruits,  grades, 
varieties,  packages,  etc.  The  honest  commission  man  will 
give  his  best  attention  to  this  and  advise  the  grower 
what  he  thinks  best  to  do.  Third,  it  is  well  understood 
that  the  producer  who  keeps  in  close  touch  with  the 
commission  man  will  get  better  results  from  that  house 
than  the  one  who  is  not  sufficiently  interested  to  look 
into  his  business  methods. 

If  it  is  possible  to  assign  any  specific  advantages  or 
disadvantages  to  the  use  of  the  commission  house  it  might 
be  summed  up  in  the  following :  ( 1 )  Producers  can  ship 
in  small  quantities.  (2)  Opportunities  are  greater  for 
the  individuality  of  the  producer.  (3)  It  makes  an 
outlet  for  surplus  stock  when  catering  to  a  home  market. 
The  first  reason  is  not  a  very  strong  one,  because  organ- 
izations have,  now,  the  means  whereby  small  quantities 
of  produce  can  be  shipped  together  in  carlots.  This  does 
apply,  however,  to  certain  sections  where  there  are  no 
organizations  and  thereby  affords  an  outlet  for  large 
quantities  of  stock  for  short  distance  shipping. 

Opportunities  for  individualities  are  often  given  as 
a  reason  why  commission  houses  should  be  permitted, 
but  this  is  not  a  particularly  valid  reason.  Commission 


SELLING   AGENCIES  171 

men  are  interested  only  in  doing  business  and  thus  ob- 
tain their  commission  for  the  sale  of  the  fruit.  They  have 
no  vital  connection  with  the  producing  end,  and  they 
are  not  acquainted  with  the  problems  which  confront  the 
grower.  Also,  the  individuals  who  can  work  their  per- 
sonality into  something  of  importance  are  very  rare. 
A  few  instances  only  can  be  mentioned  where  fruit  is 
concerned. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  organizations  which  have  be- 
come of  importance  are  numerous.  The  reason  for  this 
is  obvious :  That  no  one  individual  grower  can  produce 
large  enough  quantities  or  varieties  of  fruit  to  attract 
attention  of  a  very  wide  market.  Hence,  his  brand, 
which  may  be  excellent,  cannot  be  known  over  a  very 
wide  area.  Exchanges  handle  sufficient  quantities  of 
fruit  to  make  impressions  on  large  markets  and  can  af- 
ford to  advertise  so  the  consumer  will  know  and  under- 
stand their  brand.  In  this  way  the  individuality  of  the 
brand  or  grade  of  fruit  becomes  the  important  thing, 
rather  than  of  the  person  who  is  growing  or  producing 
the  fruit. 

Making  an  outlet  for  surplus  is  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  three  advantages.  There  is  no  question 
in  most  producers'  minds  but  that  he  gets  the  best 
results  if  he  can  sell  his  fruit  at  home,  but  in  many 
cases  the  home  market  is  limited.  Hence,  the  only  re- 
sort left  is  to  ship  to  the  commission  houses.  These  will 
gladly  handle  his  surplus  and  get  out  of  it  what  they 
can. 

The  disadvantages  of  commission  houses  are  purely 
questions  of  business  and  may  be  enumerated  under  the 
following  head:  (1)  Honesty  of  the  commission  men? 


172  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

(2)  There  is  no  check  on  charges  or  prices.  (3)  The 
producer  has  no  opportunity  to  know  or  understand 
the  market  conditions.  The  first  one  need  not  be  com- 
mented on  particularly.  But  it  is  necessary  that  the 
grower  use  his  best  business  judgment  in  getting  a  re- 
liable and  honest  house,  and  it  is  due  to  the  unscrupulous 
commission  men  that  so  much  vengeance  has  been  de- 
clared against  them. 

The  lack  of  check  on  charges  and  prices  is  a  situation 
which  no  good  reliable  business  firm  would  tolerate.  It 
would  be  out  of  the  question  to  ask  a  buyer  of  a  box 
of  fruit  to  give  a  receipt  for  the  amount  of  money  paid 
and  these  to  be  forwarded  to  the  man  who  had  the  fruit 
for  sale,  but  yet  again  in  the  larger  exchanges  this  is 
exactly  what  is  done.  Commission  houses  would  prob- 
ably refuse  to  do  this  and  it  would  entail  considerable 
bookkeeping  and,  in  many  ways,  would  be  impractical 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  consumer,  and  so  the  custom 
has  been  to  accept  the  statements  of  the  commission  men 
and  ask  for  no  receipts  whereby  to  prove  the  correctness. 
The  last,  in  the  producer  failing  to  know  the  market 
conditions,  is  a  question  of  education  and  one  which  is 
vital  to  the  industry  of  the  fruit  in  general.  No  longer 
is  it  possible  to  grow  fruit  and  get  good  results  without 
also  knowing  of  the  conditions  in  which  the  fruit  is  sold 
and  used,  and  the  producer  who  patronizes  the  commis- 
sion men  who  does  not  have  the  opportunities  to  get  in- 
formation of  these  conditions  has  little  chance  to  improve 
himself  and  become  a  progressive  grower.  This,  in  the 
opinion  of  many  of  the  more  successful  orchardists,  is 
the  greatest  objection  to  the  prevailing  method  of  com- 
mission houses. 


SELLING   AGENCIES  .         173 

In  the  final  analysis,  the  desirability  of  the  commis- 
sion man  must  rest  upon  his  ability  to  render  a  real 
service  to  any  community.  Such  service  can  only  be 
measured  in  one  or  two  ways.  First,  from  the  capital 
involved  and,  second,  by  the  moral  and  educational  ef- 
fect. Referring  to  the  capital,  of  course,  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  give  any  carefully  prepared  statistics  upon  the 
amount  of  money  invested  in  commission  house  business 
or  in  the  amount  of  money  made  on  the  capital  so  in- 
vested. The  commission  of  10%  is  a  relatively  high 
profit,  and  the  responsibilities  are  comparatively  small. 

A  small  house  capable  of  handling  five  or  six  cars  of 
fruit  every  week  can  be  easily  rented  for  $100  a  month. 
The  commission  man  and  one  clerk  could  handle  this 
business,  making  the  total  outlay  of  $150  to  $200  a 
month.  A  car  of  fruit  represents  from  $150  to  $800 
in  money.  If  he  handles  four  a  week  he  does  a  business 
of  from  $600  to  $3,200,  and  by  collecting  a  10%  profit 
upon  this  amount  of  business  he  is  getting  as  much  re- 
turns in  one  month  as  the  average  small  farmer  gets 
for  his  services  in  a  whole  year.  An  orchardist,  to  pro- 
duce a  car  of  fruit,  must  have  represented  in  capital 
from  $2,000  to  $4,000.  He  has  his  upkeep  of  this  capital, 
the  labor  involved  to  grow  the  fruit,  the  interest,  etc., 
upon  money  invested.  For  his  year's  work  he  gets 
perhaps  as  much  on  the  total  capital  invested  as  does  the 
commission  man  on  a  tenth  of  the  same  amount  of  money 
in  one  month's  time.  It  is  along  these  lines  that  the 
ultimate  service  of  the  commission  men  must  stand  or 
fall. 

Cooperation. — Cooperation  in  its  broader  sense  means 
the  banding  together  of  a  number  of  individuals  to  do 


174         .  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

business  together.  The  number  of  individuals  in  the 
organization  or  the  amount  of  business  done  is  irrelative 
to  the  purpose  of  the  organization.  The  idea  is  to  co- 
operate among  individuals  to  carry  on  the  various  in- 
terests as  a  single  person.  Much  has  been  said  and 
written  in  recent  years  regarding  cooperative  organiza- 
tions among  fruit  growers,  and  there  appears  to  be  a 
growing  tendency  in  all  producing  sections  to  form  some 
kind  of  an  organization.  This  is  not  only  true  among 
the  producers  but  also  among  the  sellers  or  distributors. 

From  the  fruit  growers'  standpoint,  cooperative  or- 
ganization may  include  the  following :  ( 1 )  The  growing 
of  the  fruit.  (2)  The  harvesting  operation.  (3)  Pack- 
ing and  grading  the  fruit.  (4)  Selling  operations.  (5) 
The  buying  of  supplies  for  the  producers.  All  of  these 
may  be  included  in  the  workings  of  the  organization,  or 
only  a  single  one  of  them,  yet  the  purpose  of  cooperat- 
ing is  still  fulfilled.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  principle 
subject  which  has  led  to  the  organization  of  cooperative 
measures  has  been  primarily  for  the  selling  of  the 
produce,  and  the  others  have  developed  as  incidental  to 
the  one  big  idea. 

There  are  from  the  standpoint  of  the  organization  it- 
self two  important  kinds:  one  is  known  as  the  profit- 
sharing  organization  and  the  other  as  the  non-profit 
sharing.  Of  these  two  the  former  is  by  far  the  oldest, 
and  the  one  which  is  usually  referred  to  where  large 
industries  are  concerned,  such  as  mining,  manufacturing, 
etc.,  but  in  connection  with  agriculture  the  profit-sharing 
organizations  have,  for  the  most  part,  gradually  given 
way  or  been  superseded  by  the  non-profit  sharing  plan. 
The  former,  or  profit-sharing  organization,  is  run  as  a 


SELLING   AGENCIES  175 

• 

stock  company;  that  is,  stock  certificate,  either  common 
or  preferred,  is  subscribed  among  the  organizers  and  the 
business  is  then  conducted  upon  dividend-paying  basis, 
the  surplus  being  returned  to  the  shareholders. 

To  form  an  organization  of  this  kind,  it  would  be 
necessary  for  the  promoters  to  go  through  the  fruit- 
growing sections  and  get  growers  to  subscribe  for  certain 
amounts  of  stock.  This  may  be  varied  from  $1  up  to 
$10  or  even  $50  a  share.  Stockholders  would  then  be- 
come voters  in  the  organization  and  be  responsible  for 
the  management  of  the  same.  Often,  stock  is  subscribed 
but  only  a  portion  of  it  paid  in,  the  rest  being  gradually 
paid  up  in  the  diape  of  dividends  through  succeeding 
years. 

The  producers  must  subscribe  money  before  it  can  be 
started.  It  is  necessary  for  them  to  contribute  sufficient 
sums  to  get  the  organization  under  way,  and  then  they 
must  take  chances  upon  possible  returns.  Most  of  the 
fruit-growing  class  are  more  or  less  skeptical  in  regard  to 
these  organizations  and  are  slow  to  put  up  money  to 
properly  get  them  into  working  condition.  Many  of  these 
organizations  have  been  failures  simply  from  the  fact 
that  a  sufficient  number  of  shares  get  into  the  hands 
of  more  or  less  unscrupulous  men  to  control  the  voting 
powers  of  the  organization,  and  they  then  can  play  into 
the  hands  of  their  competitors  and  in  that  way  the  or- 
ganization is  blocked,  hence  cannot  fulfill  its  purpose. 

The  non-profit  sharing  organizations  are  the  ones  which 
are  now  being  operated  throughout  the  United  States 
and  the  ones  which,  with  a  few  exceptions,  have  made  the 
greatest  success.  These  do  not  call  for  the  subscription 
of  money  among  the  growers,  or  for  the  issue  of  stock, 


176  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

but  pay  running  expenses  by  levying  a  tax  upon  each 
package  sold.  The  idea  is  simply  to  deduct  enough  from 
the  sales  of  each  package  to  run  the  business.  Most  of 
the  money  for  operating  exchanges  of  this  kind  is  pro- 
vided by  deducting  from  the  sales  a  flat  tax,  based  on 
the  number  of  packages  handled. 

For  example,  the  California  Fruit  Exchange  charges  a 
tax  of  5  cents  a  box  on  all  oranges  and  lemons  sold. 
Another  set  of  growers  charges  a  flat  tax  of  1  cent  a  pound 
on  all  almonds  handled.  Still  another  exchange  levies 
i/4  cent  a  pound  on  all  prunes,  raisins,  etc.  This 
amount,  in  all  cases,  has  been  found  sufficient  to  carry 
on  the  business  of  the  exchanges  and  still  have  a  work- 
ing surplus  to  carry  them  through  into  the  next  season. 
When  this  surplus  reaches  a  certain  amount  it  is  then 
returned  back  pro  rata  to  the  members  of  the  exchange. 

The  people  who  promoted  these  exchanges  first  se- 
cured the  backing  of  three  or  four  extensive  growers 
in  their  neighborhood  who  were  willing  to  advance 
$500  to  $1,000  to  get  the  organization  under  way. 
Then  the  exchanges  are  effected  in  the  following  way: 
Promoters  will  visit  the  orchardists  of  each  section,  ex- 
plain the  plan  to  them,  show  them  in  what  ways  the 
profits  are  returned  and  that  there  is  no  money  to  be 
put  up  until  there  is  something  to  be  sold.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  are  asked  to  sign  an  agreement  whereby 
they  will  not  sell  any  fruit  except  through  the  exchange. 
This  ties  up  their  fruit  and  does  not  give  them  permis- 
sion to  sell  in  any  other  way. 

In  this  way  large  quantities  of  fruit  have  been  secured 
to  sell  through  the  organization  almost  before  the  growers 
were  aware  that  anything  particular  was  under  foot. 


SELLING   AGENCIES  177 

In  some  states  where  laws  are  not  favorable  to  non-profit 
sharing  corporations,  capital  stock  is  issued  for  just  suf- 
ficient to  cover  the  requirements  of  the  law;  some  cases 
as  low  as  $1  to  each  member  of  the  exchange.  This  is 
turned  in  to  cover  office  supplies  and  so  on.  Then  the 
business  is  still  conducted  on  the  non-profit  sharing 
scheme,  still  charging  a  tax  just  sufficient  to  cover  the 
cost  of  the  organization  with  no  thought  or  idea  of 
declaring  any  dividends  upon  the  original  investment. 
Most  states,  however,  permit  non-profit  sharing  business 
organizations  in  which  case  the  small  issue  of  stock  is 
not  necessary. 

How  Organized. — From  the  viewpoint  of  managing 
cooperative  organizations,  they  are  divided  into  three 
branches:  The  local,  the  district  and  the  central  organ- 
izations. This  is  especially  necessary  where  a  good  many 
individuals  are  concerned.  The  local  organization  is 
made  up  of  the  individuals  in  a  given  fruit-producing 
section.  In  the  small  towns  or  centers  of  production 
covering  a  radius  of  5  or  10  miles,  growers  will  get  to- 
gether and  organize,  to  carry  on  the  business  of  fruit 
selling  or  growing  in  their  particular  locality.  This  was 
the  original  idea  in  forming  exchanges,  and  there  are 
still  scattered  over  the  United  States  a  number  of  these 
local  exchanges  which  have  never  become  affiliated  with 
larger  organizations.  It  was  later  found  that  these 
locals  were  acting  the  same  as  individuals,  and  where 
buyers  in  any  fruit  sections  could  secure  a  price  from 
one  local  exchange  the  rest  of  them  would  have  to  fol- 
low suit.  In  other  words,  it  becomes  simply  a  game  of 
competition  against  each  other,  as  before  the  organiza- 
tion was  formed. 


178  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Many  of  the  fruit  sections  in  each  district  became  a 
competitor  of  other  sections,  especially  where  the  ship- 
ments were  large  enough  to  interest  buyers  from  outside 
points.  After  some  experimenting  along  this  line  it  was 
found  necessary  for  the  local  organizations  to  get  to- 
gether and  agree  on  the  prices  that  they  were  to  take 
for  their  products.  This  was  in  no  sense  an  organiza- 
tion, but  simply  a  mutual  agreement.  There  was  noth- 
ing to  bind  this  agreement  except  the  word  of  honor 
which,  in  many  cases,  did  not  last  very  long.  Buyers 
and  jobbers  soon  became  aware  of  this  condition  and 
often  went  to  unscrupulous  means  to  get  one  exchange 
to  set  its  price  and  then  almost  compel  the  other  local 
organizations  to  fall  in  line. 

Later,  it  was  found  necessary  to  organize  these  locals 
into  a  central  exchange  and  handle  the  business,  not 
through  each  local  office,  but  through  a  general  man- 
ager who  represented  all  the  exchanges.  This,  in  some 
cases,  is  known  as  the  central  organization,  and  in  others, 
as  the  district.  Then  further,  where  several  states  or 
fruit-growing  sections  were  involved,  shipping  to  the 
same  market  became  again  a  question  of  competition 
among  these  districts  and  further  efforts  were  made  to 
get  the  districts  together  and  form  a  central  organiza- 
tion. 

One  California  exchange  has  over  90  local  organiza- 
tions, at  the  present  time,  comprising  nearly  8,000  mem- 
bers. These  local  organizations  are  combined  into  15 
district  organizations  and  the  district  organizations 
again  combined  into  one  central  exchange.  This  same 
plan  is  followed  out  by  another  set  of  distributors.  A 
large  number  of  local  exchanges  have  formed  together 


SELLING  AGENCIES 


179 


in  certain  district  exchanges.  These  all  combined  to 
form  a  large  selling  organization.  In  this  way  one  man 
becomes  the  manager  of  the  organization,  handles  all 
the  business  and  has  before  him  information  from  all 
the  different  parts  of  the  country  regarding  both  the 
markets  and  the  production.  He  is  able  to  control  to  a 


0  £ 


Q 


O  Q 


X0   -VL-JO 


Fig.    109.— COMMON    METHOD    OF    COMBINING    LOCAL   ASSOCIA- 
TIONS INTO  A   CENTRAL  ORGANIZATION 

large  extent  the  output,  and  so  places  it  as  to  avoid  com- 
peting against  each  other  and  thereby  getting  a  better 
price. 

The  Management  of  Exchanges. — The  history  of  co- 
operative organizations  among  farmers  is  prolific  of  a 
wonderful  amount  of  experimental  work  coupled  with 
considerable  loss  and  a  great  many  failures.  It  has  been 


180  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

slow  to  evolve  a  working  organization.  There  has  been 
two  ways  in  which  the  management  of  exchanges  has  been 
effected.  The  first  and  oldest  was  probably  by  mutual 
agreement.  The  growers  got  together  and  agreed  to  do 
so  and  so.  They  may  have  had  a  constitution  and  by- 
laws but  there  were  no  particular  restrictions  against 
their  falling  out  or  breaking  away  from  those  agree- 
ments if  conditions  were  in  their  favor  and  they  so 
desired. 

A  recent  experiment  of  this  kind  in  one  of  the  North- 
ern states  will  illustrate  the  point:  A  fruit  growers' 
exchange  was  organized  to  handle  apples  primarily. 
Two  men  owned  a  very  large  number  of  trees  and  these 
constituted  the  bulk  of  their  apple  crop.  One  year 
a  buyer  came  in  and  made  these  two  men  a  good  offer 
for  their  fruit  on  the  trees,  and  they  sold.  When  the 
organization  got  ready  to  handle  their  business  they 
found  that  the  bulk  of  the  crop  had  already  been  bar- 
gained for,  hence  the  exchange  was  a  failure. 

The  present  method,  and  the  only  one  that  has  been 
associated  with  a  large  measure  of  success,  has  been  the 
incorporation  of  the  exchange  under  the  laws  of  the 
state.  This  gives  the  exchange  a  legal  existence,  it  has 
the  protection  of  the  state,  and  also  throws  around  it 
certain  restrictions  which  are  a  big  help  to  the  producers. 
Most  all  states  provide  for  ways  and  means  of  incorpor- 
ating both  profit-sharing  and  non-profit  sharing  organ- 
izations. The  Secretary  of  State  usually  furnishes  blanks 
for  this  purpose,  and  records  the  articles  of  incorpora- 
tion on  books  the  same  as  a  deed  is  recorded  on  the  county 
record  books. 

The  organization  then  becomes  a  responsible  party ;  it 


SELLING   AGENCIES  181 

can  buy  or  sell,  do  business  legally,  and  the  directors 
become  responsible  for  the  business  of  the  concern. 
Claims  can  be  filed  against  them  or  they  can  file  claims 
against  others  the  same  as  individuals.  They  have  power 
and  authority  to  contract  with  other  companies  such  as 
railroads  or  boat  lines,  to  request  hearings  before  state 
railway  commissions,  or  even  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission.  It  also  gives  the  individual  a  right  to  file 
proceedings  against  the  organization.  In  this  way  the 
exchange  is  given  the  dignity,  reality  and  recognition  of 
which  no  mutual  contract  or  any  kind  of  an  agreement 
other  than  the  incorporated  method  can  be  a  success. 

Incorporating. — The  details  of  incorporating,  of 
course,  differ  in  different  states  and  vary  according  to 
the  needs  and  requirements  of  the  producing  sections 
in  which  it  is  formed,  but  certain  articles  of  incorpora- 
tion must  be  made  up  and  filed  with  the  Secretary  of 
the  State  and,  in  these  articles  of  incorporation,  the  state 
usually  requires  certain  stereotyped  information. 

In  most  states  the  articles  of  incorporation  would  have 
to  include  the  following  information:  (1)  The  name  of 
the  organization;  this  to  become  the  legal  title  of  the 
exchange  and  it  would  then  be  known  under  that  title. 
(2)  The  object  of  the  organization;  what  it  proposes  to 
do  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  exists.  (3)  The  prin- 
cipal place  of  business ;  this  is  usually  where  the  central 
or  head  office  is  located.  It  does  not  necessarily  have  to 
be  in  the  close  proximity  of  the  fruit-producing  section. 
(4)  The  term  of  existence  of  the  organization.  This 
may  be  10,  25,  50  or  100  years,  according  to  the  wishes 
of  the  organizers.  (5)  The  capital  stock,  both  the  com- 
mon and  the  preferred.  Of  course,  if  it  is  a  non-profit 


182  MODERN  FRUIT   MARKETING 

sharing  organization  this  would  not  be  necessary.  (6) 
The  number  and  names  of  the  directors.  This  is  only 
required  in  a  few  states.  This  requirement  was  put  in 
so  that  the  number  and  names  of  directors  for  the  first 
year  would  be  known  to  prevent,  to  a  certain  extent,, 
monopolistic  tendencies  of  certain  trusts.  (7)  The  voting 
powers  of  the  members  of  the  exchange.  This  is  worked 
out  in  various  ways.  In  the  case  where  stock  is  issued 
usually  one  vote  would  be  allowed  with  each  share  of 
stock  held.  In  such  cases  anyone  having  51%  of  the  stock 
would  have  a  controlling  vote  of  the  exchange,  and  so 
some  way  is  usually  provided  to  prevent  any  member 
getting  more  than  a  15  or  20%  interest  in  the  exchange. 

In  the  non-profit  sharing  organizations,  votes  are  usu- 
ally cast  in  accordance  to  the  fruit  handled  the  previous 
season.  For  example,  in  a  certain  apple  exchange,  if  a 
grower  shipped,  the  previous  year,  1,000  barrels  of  apples 
he  would  be  given  10  votes,  or  one  for  each  100  barrels 
shipped  or  fraction  of  100  barrels.  Therefore,  in  the 
following  year  he  would  be  entitled  to  10  votes.  This 
would  give  the  larger  producers  a  preponderance  of 
power  in  the  voting,  but  this  is  generally  considered 
just  because  of  their  larger  interest  represented. 

All  this  information  goes  to  the  Secretary  of  State 
and  is  there  recorded  upon  the  books  of  corporations 
and  becomes  common  knowledge  to  anyone  who  wishes 
to  investigate  the  matter.  Then,  associated  with  these 
articles  of  incorporation  is  the  constitution  or  by-laws 
of  the  organization  itself.  Each  local  organization  may 
be  incorporated  separately,  and  it  is  not  necessary  for 
these  organizations  to  all  have  the  same  articles  of  in- 
corporation, neither  is  it  necessary  for  the  local  and  the 


SELLING   AGENCIES  183 

central  organizations  to  have  the  same  rules  governing 
each.  This  gives  more  flexibility  to  the  local  organiza- 
tions and  prevents  them  from  getting  into  any  peculiar 
conditions  which  would  make  it  difficult  to  operate  them. 

One  local  society  might  desire  to  build  a  warehouse. 
Another  local  organization  might  not.  There  are  a 
number  of  other  similar  cases  which  might  be  mentioned 
due  to  peculiarities  of  local  conditions.  This  would  not 
make  it  feasible  or  advisable  for  both  of  them  to  be 
governed  by  the  same  strict  rules.  The  by-laws  or  con- 
stitution contains  the  working  agreement  of  these  organ- 
izations. It  specifies:  (1)  The  powers  and  duties  of 
the  directors.  (2)  Powers  and  duties  of  the  officers. 
(3)  The  meetings.  (4)  The  declaring  and  handling  of 
the  dividends.  If  it  is  non-profit  sharing,  the  arranging 
of  the  taxes  for  operating  and  plan  for  disposing  of 
the  surplus.  (5)  The  method  of  electing  the  directors. 
(6)  The  methods  of  issuing  stock  certificates,  kind  and 
dimension,  and  so  on.  (7)  Membership. 

The  membership  agreement  is  necessary  and  provides 
ways  and  means  for  new  members  to  get  into  the  organ- 
ization, as  well  as  for  a  way  for  dissatisfied  ones  to  get 
out.  No  individual  will  sign  himself  up  for  life  and, 
therefore,  he  must  have  a  means  of  withdrawing  from 
the  exchange  if  not  satisfied.  This  is  usually  provided 
for  during  one  month  of  each  year,  most  always  follow- 
ing the  annual  meeting  and  the  closing  of  the  business 
for  the  fiscal  year.  Most  apple  exchanges  would  have 
their  annual  meeting  probably  in  March  or  April,  after 
the  season's  crop  was  all  sold,  and  then  the  following 
month  an  opportunity  is  given  for  any  member  to  with- 
draw by  settling  his  account  with  the  exchange.  (8) 


184  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Provision  for  the  annual  report,  the  publication  of  spe- 
cial information  and  methods  of  conducting  the  busi- 
ness for  the  next  year.  (9)  The  rules  of  the  business  of 
the  exchange. 

Eules  for  business  conduct  are  usually  done  away  with 
or  passed  over  by  simply  stating  that  the  rules  will  be 
those  usually  followed  by  all  legal  organizations.  This 
would  consist,  as  followed  by  most  incorporated  bodies 
by  first  having  a  roll  call  of  members  at  the  meeting, 
reading  and  acceptance  of  the  minutes  of  the  previous 
meeting,  report  of  special  committee,  unfinished  business, 
new  business,  and  so  on  through  the  election  of  officers 
and  on  down.  This  is  simply  a  precautionary  measure 
against  troubles  that  might  arise  from  factions  in  the 
internal  structure  of  the  organization. 

The  usual  methods  of  electing  directors  would  be  for 
each  district  or  producing  section  to  be  represented  in  the 
management.  Each  local  association  elects  one  delegate 
to  the  central  office  who  becomes  a  director  of  the  ex- 
change. These  directors,  then,  are  responsible  for  the 
running  of  the  organization.  They  hire  the  manager, 
fix  his  salary,  and  define  his  methods  of  business  and 
limit  him  as  they  see  fit.  Most  of  the  directors  usually 
work  without  salary  but  getting  expenses  paid  when 
attending  meetings.  The  only  salaried  position  other 
than  that  of  manager  would  probably  be  that  of  the 
secretary  of  the  exchange. 

Collecting  Information. — One  of  the  chief  functions 
of  the  exchange  is  to  collect  information.  This  is  done 
from  three  sources:  (1)  At  home.  (2)  From  city 
markets.  (3)  From  competing  points.  The  question  of 
collecting  information  is  one  that  has  been  sadly  ne- 


SELLING   AGENCIES  185 

glected  by  a  great  many  exchanges  and  one  which  is 
vital  to  the  best  interests  of  the  organization.  In  the 
spring,  after  the  old  crop  is  out  of  the  way  and  the  man- 
agement is  then  turning  its  attention  to  the  oncoming 
crop  he  begins  to  need  information  regarding  conditions 
from  the  producing  end.  The  manager  makes  up  a  list 
of  questions,  puts  them  in  bulletin  form,  leaving  a  space 
to  write  in  the  answer  and  sends  a  copy  to  each  member. 

Among  the  questions  that  he  would  ask  would  be  the 
following:  (1)  Name  and  address.  (2)  Number  of 
acres  in  fruit.  (3)  Kinds  of  fruit.  (4)  Estimate  of 
the  crop.  This  is  properly  done  in  the  early  season. 
Each  member  of  the  exchange  fills  in  the  blank  and  re- 
turns it  to  the  main  office  in  June  or  early  July.  The 
manager  gets  the  data  together  and  begins  to  file  it  in 
shape  to  be  available  later  when  the  time  for  selling 
comes.  Then  a  little  later  in  August,  or  early  Sep- 
tember, when  it  would  be  possible  to  predict  rather 
accurately  the  prospects  of  the  oncoming  crop,  another 
set  of  questions  would  be  sent  out.  This  time  special 
attention  would  be  given  to  the  name  or  the  varieties 
of  the  fruit  grown,  the  number  of  trees  in  bearing  of 
each  of  these  varieties  and  an  estimate  of  the  crop,  not 
only  as  to  the  quantity  but  as  to  the  probable  grades 
or  quality. 

In  the  first  year  of  the  life  of  the  exchange  this  is 
rather  difficult  to  get,  but  where  the  information  has 
been  kept  from  year  to  year  through  this  medium  it 
becomes  quite  easy  to  predict  a  month  or  two  ahead  of 
time  what  per  cent  of  the  fruit  will  be  good  and  what 
part  will  be  fancy  or  Xo.  1.  The  manager  classifies  this 
information  so  he  is  able  to  forecast  pretty  accurately 


186  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Sample  of  Information  Blank  Sent  to  "Members 
Form  A.  INFORMATION  BLANK 

Notice.     Each  member  of  the  local  association  will  fill  out  the 

following  blank  and  mail  to  the  manager  of  the Fruit 

Growers '  Exchange  by 19 

1.  Name  and  address 

2.  Number  of  acres  in  orchard 

3.  Number  of  bearing  trees 

4.  List  of  varieties  of  apples  and  number  of  bearing  trees  of  each : 


5.  Number  of  barrels  harvested  last  year. 

6.  Estimate  of  crop  for  19 

7.  Varieties.  Bbl.  estimate  19.  . 


8.  How  many  boxes  will  you  need  ? 

9.  How  many  barrels  will  you  need  ? 

10.    Do  you  desire  the Fruit  Growers'  Exchange  to 

supply  your  boxes  or  barrels! 

Return  to 

Manager Fruit  Growers '  Exchange, 


SELLING   AGENCIES  187 

how  many  packages  of  fruit  he  will  have  to  sell,  how 
much  of  each  variety  and  approximately  the  quantity  in 
the  grades  of  each  kind.  When  this  information  is  tab- 
ulated it  is  forwarded  to  the  selling  branch  of  the  ex- 
change, which  immediately  proceeds  to  find  sale  for  the 
fruit.  This  method  gives  the  exchange  fully  six  weeks 
and  in  some  cases  three  months  advantage  over  the  indi- 
vidual who  does  not  make  any  attempt  to  place  his  fruit 
until  it  is  packed  and  ready  to  sell. 

Collecting  information  from  the  larger  city  markets 
is  quite  as  important  as  that  from  the  producers.  The 
larger  exchanges  have  their  own  agents  in  every  city.  It 
is  the  business  of  these  agents  to  keep  in  touch  with  the 
people  who  buy,  the  amount  of  fruit  shipped  daily,  and 
the  movements  of  all  kinds  of  produce.  Small  exchanges 
which  are  not  large  enough  to  have  their  own  agent,  con- 
tract with  certain  selling  organizations  which  make  a 
business  of  handling  fruit,  and  have  these  organizations 
do  the  work  which  they  are  not  able  to  do  themselves. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  one  selling  organization  in  a 
large  city  handling  the  business  of  40  or  50  of  the  smaller 
exchanges.  One  in  particular,  in  New  York  City,  handles 
fruit  from  some  of  the~smaller  exchanges  from  24  differ- 
ent states  in  the  Union. 

The  information  from  the  city  markets  would  include 
tha  following:  The  daily  receipts  of  fruit,  daily  con- 
sumption of  fruit,  daily  re-shipments  and  the  general 
market  conditions.  In  the  larger  cities  considerable 
fruit  is  shipped  direct  and  then  re-shipped  to  smaller 
outlying  districts.  This  information  is  collected  daily, 
especially  through  the  busy  season,  and  by  code  tele- 
grams forwarded,  each  night,  by  night  letter  to  the  gen- 


188  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

eral  manager's  office.  In  the  morning  the  manager  will 
then  have  all  the  information  from  all  the  larger  markets 
which  his  agents  represent.  He  would  know  the  general 
conditions  of  each  market,  about  what  fruit  they  could 
handle,  what  varieties  are  bringing  the  highest  prices 
and  the  general  tendency  of  the  market  for  the  next  two 
or  three  days.  He  would  also  have  at  his  finger  tips 
the  amount  of  fruit  in  the  warehouses  of  the  organiza- 
tion, how  much  would  need  to  be  sold  at  once,  and  how 
much  could  wait.  From  this  information  he  draws  his 
conclusions  as  to  what  markets  are  best  suited  to  handle 
his  shipments  for  the  next  two  or  three  days.  In  this 
way  it  is  almost  impossible  to  force  fruit  upon  an  al- 
ready overcrowded  market  while  another  city  is  decidedly 
lacking  in  certain  grades  and  kinds  of  fruits. 

The  information  from  competing  points  is  not  so  im- 
portant as  the  other  but  still  is  highly  desirable.  A 
number  of  the  Western  exchanges  have  men  in  other 
states  who  collect  information  regarding  the  crop.  One 
California  exchange  has  its  agents  in  Florida  watching 
the  conditions  of  the  Florida  citrus  crop.  Also  the 
Florida  organizations  have  their  agents  in  California. 
In  this  way  the  exchange  keeps  in  touch  with  the  busi- 
ness. One  exchange  has  its  agents  in  Europe,  collecting 
information,  and  constantly  keeps  the  home  office  in 
touch  with  the  fruit  situation.  This  information  is  col- 
lected and  forwarded  by  letter  usually,  or,  if  considered 
important,  by  wire.  The  agents  report  the  condition  of 
the  crop,  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  fruit,  daily 
shipments,  where  the  fruit  is  sent  and  the  prospects  of 
the  market  for  the  shipmenfs  of  fruit  for  the  next  two 
or  three  days  or  a  week, 


SELLING   AGENCIES  189 

The  manager  with  this  information  before  him  can 
forecast,  daily,  about  how  much  the  shipments  from 
other  sections  of  the  country  will  come  into  competition 
with  the  fruit  which  he  is  endeavoring  to  sell.  By  so 
doing  he  can  place  his  shipments  in  such  a  way  that  he 
will  compete  the  least  with  any  other  section  of  the  coun- 
try. Some  of  the  fruit  exchanges  are  so  well  organized 
that,  almost  any  day  in  the  year,  a  buyer  can  get  fruit 
from  their  exchange  and  never  hear  of  a  surplus  or 
oversupply.  "With  all  this  information  in  the  hands  of 
one  man,  it  is  possible  to  work  out  scientific  principles 
of  distribution  which  will  cost  the  producers  the  least 
possible  amount  in  getting  the  greatest  possible  returns. 

Dispersing  Information. — A  large  part  of  this  knowl- 
edge collected  by  the  exchange  becomes  of  interest  to  the 
producer,  and  the  exchanges  make  an  effort  to  place 
before  the  growers  such  information  as  may  be  of  value 
to  them.  One  of  the  chief  methods  of  doing  this  is  by 
distributing  the  annual  report  published  by  the  man- 
agement at  the  central  office.  In  this  annual  report  is 
usually  a  summary  of  the  business  for  the  year,  number 
of  cars  of  fruit  shipped,  number  of  packages  sold,  the 
markets  to  which  they  went,  the  general  methods  of  dis- 
tribution, etc.  Then  associated  with  that  is  a  forecast 
for  the  coming  season.  Recommendations  for  the  local 
associations  to  follow  out  in  attempting  to  improve  or 
better  their  output.  This  annual  report  also  includes  a 
statement  of  the  finances  of  the  organization,  the  ex- 
penses of  the  management,  the  sales  department,  ship- 
ping department,  etc. 

Another  means  of  keeping  the  grower  informed  on 
conditions  of-  the  market  is  the  daily  or  weekly  bulletin. 


190  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

usually  published  by  the  large  exchanges.  This  includes 
for  the  most  part  a  recapitulation  of  the  general  market 
conditions.  It  is  usually  put  out  only  in  the  busy  sea- 
son. The  information  collected  by  the  sales  forces  and 
other  branches  of  the  work  are  studied  over  and  summed 
up  in  a  small  leaflet,  which  is  mailed  out  daily  or  weekly 
to  the  local  exchanges  and  through  them  to  each  member 
of  the  association. 

Another  way  of  furnishing  information,  although  of 
a  different  class,  is  in  connection  with  the  Field  Organ- 
ization bureau  which  advises  producers  how  best  to  look 
after  their  orchards.  It  issues  bulletins  explaining  the 
best  methods  of  pruning,  cultivating  and  fertilizing,  and 
general  care  of  the  fruit  trees.  It  also  furnishes  in- 
formation on  other  questions,  such  as  the  buying  of  sup- 
plies, where  to  get  them  as  well  as  the  various  other 
articles  that  are  frequently  handled  through  the  ex- 
changes. And  most  important  of  all  is  the  giving  of 
instruction  or  information  regarding  the  harvesting, 
grading  and  packing  of  the  fruit. 

The  one  great  thing  which  has  enabled  exchanges  to 
do  business  as  they  have  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  are 
able  to  guarantee  their  pack.  In  order  to  do  this  they 
must  supervise  the  grading  and  packing  themselves.  It 
has  been  found  that  each  grower  is  not  capable  of  put- 
ting up  a  uniform  pack  from  year  to  year  and,  also,  that 
the  opinions  of  different  men  on  just  what  is  included 
in  a  certain  grade  is  variable.  To  be  sure  of  uniformity 
all  the  way  through,  the  organizations  either  have  to  do 
the  packing  or  grading  or  supervise  it  in  some  way.  In 
most  places  they  have  experts  who  are  trained  for  the 
work.  Newer  organizations  have  to  inaugurate  packing 


SELLING   AGENCIES  191 

and  grading  schools  during  the  slack  season  to  give  these 
men  sufficient  training  that  they  may  do  the  work  in  a 
highly  efficient  and  satisfactory  way. 

Financial  Aid. — Another  very  important  considera- 
tion in  the  management  of  exchange  is  its  ability  to  aid 
financially  deserving  members  of  the  organization.  This 
is  done  in  a  number  of  different  ways.  In  the  first  place, 
by  assisting  in  the  purchase  of  farm  supplies,  such  as 
fertilizers,  machinery,  fruit  packages,  spraying  material, 
etc.  Occasionally  a  grower  desires  to  handle  these  him- 
self, but  more  frequently  the  larger  exchanges  have  a 
purchasing  department  where  the  materials  are  con- 
tracted on  a  large  scale  and  then  re-sold  or  re-distributed 
to  the  local  association  as  needed.  One  large  exchange 
was  enabled  to  save  4  cents  on  the  price  of  each  package 
by  contracting  them  in  25,000  and  50,000  lots.  In  this 
way  they  saved  enough  on  the  price  of  packages  alone  to 
pay  the  entire  management  of  the  exchange. 

Another  way  in  which  financial  aid  is  often  given  is 
through  the  extension  of  credit.  This  is  largely  in  co- 
operation with  the  supply  department.  When  the  man- 
agement understands  how  much  fruit  the  grower  will 
have  for  sale  he  then  can  estimate  the  needed  quantity 
of  spraying  material,  packages,  fertilizers,  etc.  They 
are  often  willing  to  supply  this  material  as  needed  and 
wait  for  the  paying  of  the  bill  until  the  fruit  is  sold. 
The  grower  often  gets  from  $100  to  $500  worth  of  sup- 
plies in  this  way  and  yet  is  not  compelled  to  pay  for 
them  at  any  specified  time,  nor  worry  about  the  exten- 
sion of  credit.  The  price  is  simply  deducted  from  the 
sales  of  the  fruit  when  returns  are  made.  This,  with  a 
detailed  statement  regarding  all  deductions,  gives  an 


192  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

accurate  and  clear  understanding  to  the  grower  of  how 
the  business  is  run. 

Loaning  Money. — Still  another  means  whereby  an 
exchange  frequently  helps  the  members  is  through  a 
loan  department.  This  is  purely  a  financial  department 
where  money  is  loaned  to  certain  growers  and  is  done  on 
a  strictly  business  basis.  The  one  borrowing  the  money 
has,  of  course,  to  pay  interest  for  its  use.  Very  fre- 
quently it  is  difficult  for  a  grower  to  get  money  from  the 
bank  or,  in  the  newer  sections,  it  is  difficult  to  furnish 
security  for  a  loan.  In  this  way  the  exchange  gives  a 
very  material  aid  to  its  members.  In  the  Western  states 
where  large  tracts  of  land  are  subdivided  and  sold  upon 
a  credit  basis,  payments  to  be  made  upon  the  install- 
ment plan,  produces  a  rapid  development  of  the  country 
and  often  stretches  the  credit  to  the  limit. 

"Where  a  grower  is  in  need  of  money  he  writes  to  the 
manager  of  the  exchange  stating  the  facts  of  the  case 
and  then,  either  through  the  central  office  or  through  the 
local  office,  a  committee  is  sent  out  to  view  the  situation. 
If  they  deem  that  the  conditions  are  fit  to  warrant  a 
loan  upon  property  it  is  recommended  to  the  management 
of  the  exchange  and  the  money  is  then  forwarded.  If 
not,  they  of  course  are  under  the  necessity  of  refusing 
to  make  the  loan.  Often,  through  the  special  service 
bureau,  members  are  able  to  make  better  bargains  with 
real  estate  companies  and  to  work  out  their  own  private 
problems  to  a  much  better  advantage. 

Subdepartments  in  Management. — For  the  conveni- 
ence of  handling  the  business,  the  large  exchanges  or- 
ganize their  managing  force  into  subdepartments  just  the 
same  as  any  large  manufacturing  business  would  do. 


SELLING   AGENCIES  193 

These  are  variously  enumerated,  but  the  following  would 
represent  the  more  common  of  these  subdepartments : 
(1)  Statistical.  (2)  Traffic.  (3)  Legal.  (4)  Field  or- 
ganization. (5)  Advertising.  (6)  Selling.  (7)  Pur- 
chasing. In  the  smaller  exchanges  these,  of  course,  are 
collected  together  and  often  one  man  will  handle  two  or 
three  departments,  but  as  the  business  increases  each 
one  becomes  an  independent  department  in  itself,  subject 
only  to  the  supervision  of  the  general  manager. 

The  statistical  department  looks  after  the  collecting  of 
information,  largely  from  the  producing  end.  It  gathers 
figures  regarding  the  acres  in  fruit,  number  and  kind 
of  varieties  and  general  facts  that  might  be  of  interest 
either  to  the  grower  or  to  the  management  of  the  ex- 
change. The  traffic  department  looks  after  the  move- 
ments of  the  cars  of  fruit.  It  keeps  records  of  the  num- 
bers and  names  of  the  cars  and  follows  them  through 
to  their  destination.  It  also  is  instrumental  in  getting  new 
commodity  rates.  It  files  claims  for  over-charges  or  for 
any  carelessness  due  to  the  railroad's  management.  It 
handles,  as  far  as  possible,  claims  filed  against  the  or- 
ganization and,  in  connection  with  the  legal  department, 
looks  after  the  claims  brought  by  individuals  against  the 
shipments  which  may  be  rejected. 

In  a  recent  annual  report  of  a  Western  exchange 
occurs  the  following  statement  regarding  the  work  of 
the  traffic  department.  ' '  The  exchange  has  filed  with  the 
railroad  6,626  claims  for  over-charge  or  damage  to  fruit 
in  transit — 5,745  claims  have  been  paid.  And  $180,428 
has  been  returned  to  the  shippers,  the  cost  of  which  is 
included  in  the  selling  expense  at  4%  cents  a  box." 
This  exchange  did  a  business  last  year  of  28,186  cars 


194  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

of  fruit.  This,  extending  through  a  period  of  about 
eight  months,  would  mean  an  average  shipment  of  3,500 
cars  a  month,  or  100  cars  and  over  a  day.  As  it  would 
require  from  8  to  12  days  for  these  cars  to  reach  their 
destination,  that  would  mean  from  800  to  1,000  cars  on 
the  road  at  one  time.  The  traffic  department's  business 
is  to  look  after  these  cars  and  be  able  to  advise  the  gen- 
eral management  at  any  time  where  each  car  is  in  its 
progress  along  the  railroad. 

The  Legal  Department  is  purely  concerned  with  the 
business  of  the  law  in  connection  with  the  management 
of  the  exchange.  It  looks  up  questions  of  law.  The  in- 
terpretations of  state  laws,  also  national  tariffs  affect- 
ing its  business  and  the  attending  of  hearings  before 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  are  also  impor- 
tant duties.  In  the  small  exchanges  this  simply  would 
constitute  a  lawyer  from  some  well-known  firm  who  is 
retained  to  handle  this  business,  but  in  the  larger  organ- 
izations it  is  necessary  to  have  a  department  for  this 
work. 

An  illustration  of  the  power  of  the  legal  department 
perhaps  can  be  cited  in  the  following  case:  A  Cali- 
fornia industry  has  its  strongest  competitor  in  a  lemon 
district  of  southern  Italy.  The  tariff  up  to  the  time 
of  Taft's  administration  averaged  $1  a  crate  on  lemons. 
The  railroad  charged  approximately  $1  a  crate  freight 
from  the  Western  coast  to  the  Eastern  markets.  During 
Taft's  administration,  when  the  tariff  was  revised, 
through  the  efforts  of  a  protective  league,  the  legal  de- 
partment of  the  Western  exchanges  was  able  to  have 
the  tariff  raised  to  $1.50  a  box  for  imported  lemons.  Im- 
mediately, the  railroad  handling  the  citrus  fruit  raised 


SELLING  AGENCIES  195 

the  freight  on  lemons  to  $1.50  a  box,  thus  absorbing  all 
the  benefits  of  the  tariff. 

The  exchanges  protested  this  action  and  immediately 
started  a  hearing  before  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission. Upon  all  of  the  lemons  shipped  to  the  East, 
the  extra  freight  had  to  be  paid,  but  this  was  done  under 
protest  and  receipts  taken  for  every  package.  The  legal 
department  fought  this  case  through  the  court  and  in 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  for  two  years.  It 
was  finally  settled  in  favor  of  the  fruit  exchange.  As 
a  result  of  this  one  decision  $343,744  was  returned  to  the 
growers  from  the  railroads  on  the  excess  freight  for  the 
two  years.  Only  strong,  well-organized  exchanges  doing 
a  large  business  could  afford  the  expense  of  fighting  a 
continental  shipping  organization. 

Field  Organization  Department  has  to  do  entirely  with 
the  producing  side  of  the  fruit.  It  looks  after  the  in- 
terests of  the  producer.  It  has  experts  to  advise  the 
members  regarding  the  care  of  the  orchard,  pruning, 
etc.  And  when  it  comes  to  the  packing  of  the  fruit  it 
supervises  this  so  as  to  insure  uniformity  in  both  grade 
and  pack.  The  field  organization  department  is  one 
of  the  oldest  departments  and  one  of  the  most  necessary. 
It  was  early  found  that  unless  packs  were  uniform  and 
put  up  in  a  systematic  way  the  buyers  had  no  assur- 
ance that  the  label  on  one  package  would  mean  the  same 
as  the  label  on  another.  Hence  the  development  of  this 
department  was  found  necessary  in  order  to  insure  uni- 
formity in  the  fruit,  and  to  enable  the  organization  to 
guarantee  its  pack. 

Advertising  Department  is  more  or  less  of  a  recent 
venture.  Exchanges  set  aside  a  certain  sum  of  money 


196  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

each  year  for  advertising  and  have  found  that  it  pays 
to  advertise  fruit,  as  well  as  a  pure  food  manufacturer 
finds  that  it  pays  to  advertise  his  particular  food.  The 
business  of  advertising  is  as  important  to  the  fruit- 
selling  business  as  it  is  in  manufacturing.  In  almost 
every  paper  and  magazine  of  consequence  will  be  found 
advertised  the  brands  of  oranges  or  the  sun-cured  raisins 
grown  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  Southern  states  grow- 
ing quantities  of  vegetables  or  fruit  have  also  resorted  to 
various  means  of  advertising.  The  Eastern  states  have 
done  this  only  in  a  limited  way,  but  are  gradually  com- 
ing to  realize  the  importance  of  this  branch  of  the  in- 
dustry. 

Selling  Department  of  exchanges  is  probably  the  most 
important  division  of  the  work.  Selling  agents  have  to 
be  stationed  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  East  and,  in 
some  cases,  in  the  foreign  markets  as  well.  Each  one 
of  these  agents  is  advised  of  the  contents  of  each  ware- 
house in  the  local  organization;  how  much  fruit  there 
is  to  be  disposed  of ;  about  what  time  it  should  be  placed 
on  the  market ;  and  where  prices  are  pre-determined  by 
the  management  of  the  exchange,  these  are  also  given  to 
the  sales  agents.  The  larger  exchanges  have  their  own 
salaried  agents  in  the  field.  Some  of  the  smaller  ex- 
changes cooperate  with  the  larger  ones,  making  use  of 
the  information  .and  knowledge  of  their  organization. 
In  still  other  cases  some  of  them  sell  altogether  through 
subsidiary  organizations  which  handle  only  that  part  of 
the  work.  The  methods  of  selling  will  be  taken  up  in 
detail  later. 

Purchasing  Department. — The  last  department  which 
the  exchanges  have  subdivided  themselves  into  is  what 


SELLING    AGENCIES  197 

might  be  termed  a  purchasing  department.  This,  in 
many  cases,  is  done  by  the  managing  office  or  under  his 
direct  supervision.  In  other  instances  they  have  a  reg- 
ular purchasing  department.  This  department  looks 
after  the  contracting  of  all  kinds  of  supplies  for  the 
producer,  such  as  boxes,  packages,  spraying  materials, 
fertilizers  and  chemicals  of  various  kinds.  In  one  or 
two  instances  such  a  department  is  a  subsidiary  organiza- 
tion of  the  regular  exchange.  It  is  sometimes  a  stock 
company,  the  stock  being  owned  largely  by  the  members 
of  the  exchange.  In  such  cases  it  would  be  run  inde- 
pendently of  the  general  management.  These  depart- 
ments are  highly  desirable  because,  by  contracting  far 
enough  ahead  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  growers,  consider- 
able money  can  be  saved  by  buying  in  large  quantities. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  producer  can  always  buy  his 
supplies  through  the  exchange,  thereby  insuring  the 
correct  packages  or  other  farm  supplies.  He  can  usually 
get  them  at  a  cost  much  less  than  if  he  had  to  contract 
or  buy  them  at  wholesale.  One  Western  exchange  has  a 
subsidiary  organization  for  the  purchasing  department. 
This  is  a  stock  company  and  pays  dividends  to  the  stock- 
holders. Their  aggregate  business  per  year  averages 
about  $2,000,000. 

Details  of  Exchange  Management. — In  the  larger  or- 
ganizations each  local  exchange  is  provided  with  a  ware- 
house. In  all  of  these  local  exchanges  that  have  their  own 
warehouses  the  fruit  is  brought  in  by  each  grower  and  is 
there  graded  and  stored.  In  some  cases  the  fruit  is 
packed  in  the  producer*  packing-house  and  no  central 
one  is  maintained.  In  these  cases,  however,  the  packing 
is  done  by  men  under  the  direction  and  instruction  of 


193  MODERN    FRUIT   MARKETING 

the  management  of  the  exchange  and  not  by  the  indi- 
vidual grower.  In  the  case  of  the  more  perishable  fruits, 
like  strawberries,  and  occasionally  peaches  and  apricots, 
they  are  packed  by  the  individual  grower  under  the 
supervision  of  the  exchange.  Inspectors  are  provided 
that  open  and  inspect  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  pack- 
ages that  are  brought  into  the  warehouse.  If  any  are 
found  not  up  to  the  standard  they  are  returned  or  re- 
packed at  the  expense  of  the  producer.  In  this  way  the 
management  is  able  to  maintain  a  standard  pack. 

Where  warehouses  are  maintained  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  a  foreman  to  look  after  the  fruit  during  the  busy 
part  of  the  year.  When  each  grower  brings  in  his  fruit 
the  foreman  receives  it  and  stores  it  away  in  some  spe- 
cial place.  He  then  makes  out  a  receipt  for  this  fruit  in 
triplicate,  stating  the  grower's  name,  the  varieties  and 
number  of  boxes  or  packages  sent  in.  The  grower  is 
given  one  of  these,  one  is  sent  to  the  manager  at  the 
central  office  and  the  third  is  put  on  the  files  at  the 
warehouse.  This  receipt  is  kept  by  the  producer  for 
references  and  also  to  check  up  returns  when  final  set- 
tlements are  made. 

Where  there  are  a  number  of  local  warehouses  con- 
nected with  the  central  exchange  this  enables  the  man- 
ager to  have  at  all  times  before  him  a  complete  manifest 
of  the  contents  of  all  of  the  different  warehouses.  This 
information  is  sent  by  the  general  manager  to  each  of 
the  selling  agents.  When  an  order  is  received  at  the 
central  office  for  a  car  of  fruit  the  manager  looks  over 
his  files  and  determines  which  warehouse  can  best  load 
out  the  shipment.  He  then  wires  the  foreman  of  the 
local  exchange  instructing  him  to  load  so  many  cars 


SELLING   AGENCIES  199 

of  so  many  varieties  and  grades  in  each.  The  foreman 
carries  out  these  instructions  and  makes  a  bill  of  lading 
to  the  railroad  for  shipment  direct  to  the  buyer  or  to 
the  place  of  consignment.  A  copy  of  the  bill  of  lading 
is  forwarded  to  the  general  manager's  office  and,  if  the 
case  happens  to  be  a  sale  that  is  already  arranged,  this 
is  forwarded  to  the  agent  in  the  city  who  has  made  the 
sale.  That  agent  then  turns  over  the  goods  upon  their 
arrival  to  the  purchaser,  collects  the  money  and  returns 
it  to  the  general  manager. 

Every  so  often,  in  some  cases  once  a  week  and  in  other 
cases  once  a  month,  these  receipts  are  totaled  up  and 
the  flat  tax  which  goes  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  ex- 
change deducted;  the  balance  is  distributed  among  the 
various  local  exchanges.  The  managing  officer  of  the  lo- 
cal exchange  then  distributes  to  the  individual  growers 
whatever  their  particular  brand  of  fruit  sells  for.  This 
does  not  constitute  a  pooling  of  the  fruit  of  different  grow- 
ers, but  the  fruit  of  each  individual  is  sold  separately, 
and  returns  are  made  separately,  so  no  one  loses  his 
identity  in  any  way.  It  is  also  a  fact  that  the  local  ex- 
changes do  not  lose  their  identity  by  combining  with 
the  larger  organizations.  For  example,  two  labels  are 
used  on  each  package.  The  name  of  the  local  organization 
on  one  end  and  of  the  larger  exchange  on  the  other. 

Benefits  of  Cooperation. — Cooperative  fruit-selling 
organizations  have  been  envolved  to  meet  a  particular 
need,  and  while  they  have  been  instrumental  in  increas- 
ing the  price  of  many  different  kinds  of  fruit  to  the 
producer,  this  has  been  brought  about  by  the  increase 
of  the  quality  of  the  fruit,  rather  than  by  the  boosting 
of  the  prices.  In  the  second  place,  they  have  decreased 


200  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

the  cost  of  distributing  the  fruit  to  the  consumer  be- 
cause of  the  greater  efficiency  in  handling  the  market- 
ing at  selling  end.  There  is  no  longer  any  question  but 
what  cooperative  fruit-selling  associations  are  a  desir- 
able institution  and  in  many  places  an  absolute  necessity. 

All  of  the  fruit  growers  on  the  Pacific  Coast  will  say 
that  were  it  not  for  their  methods  of  standardizing  the 
packages  and  being  able  to  guarantee  these  to  the 
Eastern  buyers,  they  would  never  have  been  able  to 
develop  the  fruit  industry  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  While 
the  organizations  have  not  always'  proved  a  financial  suc- 
cess this  was  to  be  expected,  because  they  represented  a 
new  industry  and  the  methods  and  details  of  manipula- 
tion had  to  be  gradually  worked  out  to  fit  the  needs  of 
each  different  locality. 

The  benefits  of  cooperation  in  fruit  selling  can  be 
more  or  less  definitely  summed  up  under  the  following 
heads:  (1)  They  enable  the  small  grower  to  ship  in  car- 
lots.  (2)  They  distribute  the  crop  to  prevent  congestion 
upon  the  market.  (3)  They  have  enabled  growers  to 
establish  standard  brands.  (4)  They  have  made  possible 
better  business  methods  in  handling  the  produce.  (5) 
They  make  possible  the  use  of  less  important  varieties  of 
fruits.  (6)  They  allow  better  equipment  for  handling 
the  crop.  (7)  They  give  an  incentive  for  better  care  of 
the  orchard.  (8)  They  make  a  better  market  stability. 

There  are  also,  as  might  be  expected,  a  few  difficulties 
in  the  workings  of  the  cooperative  organizations.  Some 
of  these  are  more  theoretical  than  practical,  but  still  there 
is  a  more  or  less  well-founded  objection  to  the  fruit- 
selling  organizations.  One  objection  usually  advanced  is 
that  independent  growers  get  the  benefit.  That  is,  people 


SELLING    AGENCIES  201 

who  are  outside  of  the  organizations  reap  the  increased 
prices  that  are  maintained  by  the  exchanges.  That  is  an 
inducement  for  narrow-minded  men  to  stay  outside  of 
the  organization.  In  some  cases,  prices  have  been  ad- 
vanced by  the  associations  and  the  independent  growers 
have  reaped  the  result.  In  other  cases,  where  jobbers 
and  commission  houses  handle  the  fruit  of  certain  sec- 
tions, they  purposely  inflated  prices  to  deter  men  from 
becoming  members  of  the  exchange  or  to  induce  those 
already  members  to  withdraw  and  weaken  the  exchange. 

Another  difficulty  often  set  forth  is  that  of  keeping 
the  quality  of  the  fruit  up  to  standard.  Some  years  the 
different  fruit  sections  might  have  a  poor  crop  and  gen- 
eral climatic  conditions  make  the  entire  yield  of  lower 
grade.  In  such  cases  it  is  particularly  difficult  to  keep 
a  standard  pack  and  grade  from  year  to  year.  However, 
this  is  obviated  largely  by  the  guarantee  which  organiza- 
tions are  able  to  maintain,  and  the.  buyers  knowing  that 
if  the  fruit  is  off  standard,  they  can  demand  a  rebate  or 
a  decrease  in  price  paid  for  the  goods.  Another  diffi- 
culty is  in  general  crop  failures.  This  is  only  true 
where  the  organizations  cover  limited  territory.  If  a 
local  exchange  representing  one  fruit-growing  section  has 
an  entire  crop  failure,  this  would  leave  the  exchange 
with  practically  no  work  to  do  for  the  whole  year. 
"Where  the  locals  are  combined  into  a  central  exchange 
covering  a  large  territory,  this  is  not  a  valued  objection 
against  the  organization,  because  no  large  area  in  fruit 
production  can  possibly  have  an  entire  crop  failure  in 
one  year. 

The  old  objection  and  the  one  usually  advanced  is 
that  of  jealousy,  envy  and  lack  o*f  confidence.  "While 


202  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

this  is  still  true  in  many  places  in  the  small  exchanges, 
the  conditions  are  such  that  the  producing  men  have 
become  broader  in  their  views  and  are  able  to  put  more 
confidence  in  the  men  who  handle  or  administrate  their 
business  for  them.  This  is  as  absolutely  necessary  in 
the  fruit  industry  as  it  is  in  any  line  of  manufacturing 
or  mercantile  business.  The  old  idea  of  forming  a  local 
exchange  and  employing  one  of  their  own  members  to 
officiate  or  administrate  the  business  and  pay  him  a 
salary  which  will  probably  exceed  anything  made  by  a 
great  many  of  the  members  off  of  their  fruit,  led,  of 
course,  to  many  critical  remarks  and  lack  of  confidence 
on  the  part  of  their  manager.  This  is  only  petty  jealousy 
and  constitutes  no  valid  reason  why  the  exchange  need 
be  looked  down  upon. 

Another  difficulty  set  forth  in  some  places  is  of  the 
monopolistic  tendencies  of  the  fruit  organizations,  claim- 
ing that  they  are  in  a  class  covered  by  the  anti-trust  or 
Sherman  Law.  This  has  gone  so  far  that,  in  one  or  two 
states,  the  members  of  certain  exchanges  have  carried  the 
business  into  the  Supreme  Court  in  an  attempt  to  nul- 
lify certain  obligations  or  contracts  entered  into  by 
members  of  the  exchange,  on  the  grounds  of  its  opposi- 
tion to  the  Sherman  Trust  Law.  This  has  been  given 
at  various  times  as  a  valid  objection  to  fruit  organiza- 
tions. It  has  been  pretty  definitely  established,  however, 
that  a  market  for  any  fruit  product  as  perishable  as 
most  of  that  grown  in  the  United  States,  can  never  be 
monopolized  because  of  the  perishability  of  the  goods 
handled. 


CHAPTER  X 

SELLING  METHODS 

THERE  are  various  ways  by  which  exchanges  do  the 
selling  of  fruit,  depending  largely  upon  the  size  of  the 
exchange,  kind  of  fruit  to  be  sold,  methods  of  distribu- 
tion, etc.  Among  the  more  important  ways  may  be  men- 
tioned the  following:  (1)  Special  salesmen  under  the 
management  of  the  organization.  (2)  Track  sales.  (3) 
F.  0.  B.  sales.  (4)  On  consignment.  (5)  Shipment, 
bill  of  lading  attached.  (6)  Auctions.  (7)  Special  re- 
tail of  private  markets.  (8)  Other  agencies  which  in- 
clude the  commission  houses,  jobbers,  selling  exchanges 
and  fruit-distributing  companies. 

The  first  method  in  which  special  salesmen  are  em- 
ployed is  supposed  to  be  the  best  because  regular  sal- 
aried agents  of  the  company  call  upon  the  trade  from 
time  to  time  and  solicit  their  business  for  the  fruit  they 
have  to  sell.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  special  salesmen 
are  becoming  less  and  less  and,  as  time  goes  on,  will 
probably  be  superseded  by  some  of  the  other  methods. 

As  exchanges  begin  to  multiply  and  grow  more  numer- 
ous the  commission  house  business  will  gradually  fall 
off.  A  conservative  estimate,  which  was  recently  made, 
states  that  the  amount  of  fruit  handled  by  the  commis- 
sion men  has  decreased  50%  during  the  past  five  or  six 
years.  The  special  salesmen  have  been  partly  responsi- 

203 


204  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

ble  for  that.  On  the  other  hand,  the  smaller  exchanges 
are  not  able  to  hire  a  salesman  throughout  the  whole 
year,  so  various  methods  have  been  devised  to  elim- 
inate this  large  expense.  It  was  also  found  that  these 
agents  were  more  or  less  competing  against  other  ex- 
changes handling  the  same  kind  of  fruit,  and  that  this 
would  eventually  become  one  of  the  difficulties  of  coop- 
eration. So  immediately  a  move  was  started  to  have 
certain  standard  selling  agencies  represent  a  number  of 
different  exchanges.  This  resulted  finally  in  the  estab- 
lishing of  several  distributing  associations,  of  which 
more  will  be  said  later. 

Track  sales  and  f.  o.  b.  sales  are  very  closely  related. 
Track  sales  are  usually  considered  as  sold  on  the  track 
in  which  the  fruit  is  produced,  or  in  other  words,  the 
nearest  shipping  point.  An  f.  o.  b.  sale  means  free  on 
board  cars  at  any  point  designated,  hence  a  track  sale 
and  an  f.  o.  b.  sale  may  mean  the  same  condition.  It 
is  undoubtedly  a  desirable  way  of  selling  fruit  on  the 
track  at  the  point  in  which  it  is  produced,  but  this  can 
only  be  handled  under  certain  peculiar  conditions.  In 
the  first  place,  general  markets  must  be  such  that  buyers 
are  willing  to  go  into  the  field  and  bid  on  fruit  which 
may  be  sold  at  the  tra^k.  This  further  means  that  only 
in  large  producing  sections  where  a  good  many  cars  are 
shipped  daily  can  buyers  afford  to  place  agents  at  these 
producing  points. 

Some  fruit-growing  sections,  especially  favored  by 
good  shipping  facilities  or  a  little  better  quality  of 
fruit,  often  attract  buyers  where  other  sections  would 
have  to  send  out  their  salesmen  and  hustle  for  the  trade. 
Track  sales,  as  a  rule,  give  a  little  better  returns  than 


SELLING    METHODS  205 

where  shipments  are  made  otherwise,  especially  are  they 
better  than  the  average  consignment.  The  exchange 
management  or  salesmen  can  contract  directly  with  the 
buyer,  agreeing  upon  a  price,  and  then  there  is  no  after 
difficulty  from  having  the  fruit  rejected.  Also  the  ex- 
change does  not  have  to  stand  the  expense  of  shipping 
the  fruit  or  wait  for  the  money  after  the  fruit  leaves 
the  track.  One  large  exchange,  handling  small  fruit  in 
Missouri,  reported  a  general  advance  of  strawberries  of 
60  to  80  cents  a  crate,  where  they  were  sold  on  track, 
over  that  received  when  consigned. 

In  the  consignment  of  fruit  the  method  is  similar  to 
that  practiced  by  the  old  commission  houses.  In  fact, 
many  commission  men  make  a  practice  of  handling  only 
carload  consignments  from  exchanges.  These  consign- 
ments may  also  go  through  other  routes  like  the  auction 
companies  or  through  a  special  selling  agent  allowing 
them  to  dispose  of  the  fruit  for  what  they  can  get. 
Consignments  necessarily  follow  where  the  salesmen  are 
not  able  to  handle  all  the  fruit  and  get  orders  for 
it  before  it  reaches  the  consuming  centers.  "Where  cars 
are  shipped  long  distances  they  are  often  handled  as 
"tramp  cars";  that  is,  they  are  consigned  to  their  agent 
in  some  of  the  Eastern  cities. 

Points  on  the  Pacific  Coast  enjoy,  for  the  most  part, 
a  flat  rate  on  freight  tariffs  to  any  point  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river.  These  cars  are  started  off  as  tramps, 
and  upon  reaching  St.  Louis  or  other  points  where  they 
cross  to  Eastern  territories  they  are  diverted  according 
to  the  requirements  or  conditions  of  the  market.  For 
instance,  a  recent  manager  of  an  exchange  reported  the 
following :  A  carload  of  pears  was  consigned  to  Chicago 


206  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

from  the  Pacific  Coast.  When  it  reached  this  city  it 
was  found  that  the  markets  were  glutted  for  this  kind 
of  pear.  It  was  then  diverted  to  Philadelphia,  but  on 
reaching  there  the  Eastern  agent  thought  by  continuing 
them  to  New  York  the  growers  could  realize  a  higher 
price  than  the  Philadelphia  market  afforded.  It  was 
again  diverted  and,  on  reaching  New  York,  was  sold  at 
an  advance  of  50  cents  a  package  over  anything  offered 
in  Chicago  or  Philadelphia.  In  this  way  large  over- 
supplies  or  deficiencies  are  avoided. 

Where  consignments  are  made  to  regular  commission 
houses  they  are  usually  investigated  by  the  management 
of  the  exchange  and  are  often  required  to  give  bonds  for 
the  proper  fulfillment  of  their  business  contracts.  Such 
commission  houses  usually  work  on  a  lesser  margin  than 
where  small  shipments  are  handled.  Where  the  agent 
of  the  exchange  is  also  located  in  the  city  in  which  the 
commission  men  do  business,  he  is  much  more  apt  to 
do  his  best  for  the  interest  of  the  fruit  growers  than  he 
would  otherwise. 

Another  method  is  to  ship  fruit  with  the  bill  of  lad- 
ing attached.  This  is  followed  out  by  a  number  of  well 
established  exchanges  which  have  no  agents.  They 
do  their  selling  through  the  general  office  by  means  of 
correspondence.  This  is  the  common  method  of  the 
cured  fruit  exchanges  or  the  various  almond  or  walnut 
exchanges,  where  the  fruit  is  capable  of  being  kept  for 
a  little  longer  period  of  time. 

One  California  exchange  found  that  it  was  not  neces- 
sary to  have  any  selling  force  at  all  after  the  first  year 
of  the  organization.  Its  method  of  selling  could  be 
illustrated  by  the  following.  The  commodity  is  such 


SELLING   METHODS  207 

that  it  will  keep  for  some  little  time.  The  directors  set 
a  price  for  which  the  product  should  be  offered  to  the 
trade.  When  this  price  was  agreed  upon  and  the  esti- 
mates of  the  oncoming  crop  tabulated,  they  sent  this 
information  to  all  of  the  large  buying  houses  and  job- 
bers in  the  East,  asking  them  to  reserve  such  quantities 
as  they  saw  fit. 

They  did  this  fully  one  month  ahead  of  the  time  at 
which  the  fruit  was  harvested.  The  buyers  in  the  East- 
ern markets,  knowing  that  the  price  had  been  fixed  and 
they  could  not  get  the  product  at  any  other  place  for  a 
less  price,  immediately  wired  or  wrote  the  exchange  to 
reserve  such  quantities  as  they  thought  they  would  need 
for  the  year's  supply.  This  particular  exchange  esti- 
mated its  entire  crop  at  2,000  tons.  By  the  end  of  the 
first  week,  after  the  buyers  had  been  advised  of  the 
prices  set,  all  of  the  crop  had  been  bargained  for  and  30 
carloads  in  excess  of  what  it  could  supply.  These,  of 
course,  were  bonafide  orders  and  were  booked  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  way  in  which  they  were  received. 
Those  coming  in  first  were  filled  first,  and  if  there  were 
not  enough  to  go  around  the  ones  ordering  last  were 
compelled  to  take  short  measures. 

AVhen  the  product  was  shipped  to  the  Eastern  market 
it  was  consigned  direct  to  the  buyers.  Along  with  the 
bill  of  lading  went  a  sight  draft  attached,  covering  the 
price  of  the  contents  of  the  car.  A  copy  of  this  bill  was 
also  sent  to  the  bank  through  which  the  buyers  were 
doing  business.  The  railroad  then  acted  as  agent  to  pro- 
tect the  sellers.  Before  the  buyer  could  gain  possession 
of  the  carload  he  was  compelled  to  go  to  the  bank  and 
take  up  the  attached  bill,  which  then  became  a  sight 


208  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

draft.  After  being  paid  to  the  bank  it  became  a  re- 
ceipted bill  upon  presentation  of  which  the  railroad 
would  deliver  the  shipment.  In  this  way  there  was  no 
credit  extended  and  the  exchange  did  not  have  to  wait  for 
its  money.  This  method  also  prevented  unscrupulous  busi- 
ness men  from  beating  the  exchanges  out  of  their  money. 

In  1914  this  exchange  did  over  $450,000  worth  of 
business,  and  during  that  period  lost  less  than  $23  on 
uncollectable  accounts.  In  the  last  annual  report  from 
another  exchange,  the  organization  did  a  year 's  business 
of  $29,434,402.40.  Out  of  this  sum  it  sustained  a  loss 
totaling  $355  in  bad  or  uncollectable  accounts,  making  a 
total  of  .524%  loss  in  bad  debts.  This  method  of  fill- 
ing orders  by  means  of  a  sight  draft  attached  to  the  bill 
of  lading  accounts  largely  for  the  very  small  per  cent 
in  losses.  This  same  method  is  used  also  by  other  ex- 
changes. 

It  is  only  possible  to  do  business  in  this  way  when  the 
exchange  is  able  to  stand  behind  any  price  it  may  set  or 
guarantee  any  pack  it  may  undertake  to  sell.  When  any 
buyer  gets  a  package  of  fruit,  knowing  that  if  it  is  not 
up  to  standard  he  may  return  it  and  get  his  money  back, 
he  is  perfectly  willing  to  invest  without  first  examining 
the  contents  of  the  package.  No  consumer  in  any  town 
or  city  would  think  of  trading  for  a  moment  with  a 
grocery  store  which  would  not  take  back  goods  which 
were  not  satisfactory  or  not  up  to  expectation.  Hence, 
it  is  only  reasonable  to  say  that  fruit  growers  must  ex- 
pect the  same  conditions  if  they  want  to  demand  the 
highest  price  and  the  respect  of  the  consuming  public. 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  is  one  of  the  hardest  prob- 
lems which  exchanges  have  to  contend  with  and  one 


SELLING    METHODS  209 

which,  calls  for  all  of  the  ingenuity  human  brains  can 
devise  to  keep  and  maintain  a  standard  of  efficiency. 

Auctions. — A  method  of  disposing  of  fruit  which  has 
very  recently  become  quite  popular  is  by  means  of  the 
auction.  These  auctions  are  in  no  wise  connected  with 

the  producing  end,  but  are  strictly  a  selling  organiza^ 

tion.  There  is  one,  sometimes  two,  doing  business  in 
every  large  city  of  the  United  States.  For  the  most  part 
they  are  corporations  usually  of  the  profit-sharing  kind, 
their  main  object  being  to  handle  fruit  on  a  basis  of  gross 
receipts  for  the  fruit  sold.  They  are  not  materially  dif- 
ferent from  the  commission  men  except  in  the  very  large 
business  that  is  handled. 

To  dispose  of  fruit  through  an  auction  company  it  is 
necessary  first  to  belong  to  some  exchange  or  organiza- 
tion. As  an  individual  it  is  practically  impossible  to  sell 
fruit  through  these  auctions.  They  handle  very  large 
quantities  and  mostly  from  the  larger  exchanges.  Their 
argument  in  favor  of  the  auction  is  quick  action  in  the 
selling  operation.  Of  the  more  perishable  fruits,  this  is 
likely  to  be  to  the  best  interest  of  the  shipper.  They 
work  on  a  very  much  smaller  commission  than  do  the 
ordinary  commission  houses  and  are,  at  the  present  time,  — 
handling  enormous  quantities  of  fruit.  Some  of  the 
more  perishable  fruit,  like  the  deciduous  kinds  from  the 
far  "West,  also  the  imported  lemons  and  a  good  deal  of 
Porto  Rican  and  other  tropical  fruits,  are  sold  almost 
entirely  in  this  way. 

The  method  of  doing  business  with  an  auction  com- 
pany would  be  about  as  follows:  The  carload  of  fruit 
is  consigned  to  the  agent  of  the  exchange,  and  on  the 
arrival  of  this  car  at  its  destination  it  is  turned  over  to 


210 


MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 


the  auction  company.  Auctions  never  received  the  cars 
directly,  but  they  are  turned  over  to  them  by  some  au- 
thorized agent  of  the  exchange.  As  soon  as  a  car  of 
fruit  is  started  to  the  agent,  the  business  manager  of  the 
central  exchange  or  the  sales  department  manager  makes 
a  manifest  of  the  contents  of  the  car,  giving  the  name  of 
each  individual  who  had  fruit  in  the  car,  the  quantity, 


Fig.    110.— ARRANGING    SHIPMENTS    IN    THE   WAREHOUSE 
OF  THE  AUCTION  COMPANY 

variety  and  grade.  This  manifest  is  forwarded  to  the 
agent  and  a  copy  of  it  turned  over  to  the  auction  company. 
The  auction  company  then  proceeds  in  one  or  two 
ways,  some  take  samples  from  the  fruit  when  it  ar- 
rives and  sell  entirely  from  the  samples.  Others  make 
up  a  catalog  (Fig.  112),  and  the  fruit  is  inspected  in 
the  warehouse  or  in  the  car,  and  then  bid  off  according  to 
the  statements  in  the  catalog.  Where  these  manifests 
arrive  a  day  ahead  of  time  they  can  be  cataloged  and 
ready  for  the  auction  at  the  next  morning.  Cars  that 
have  arrived  during  the  afternoon  and  night  of  any  one 


SELLING    METHODS 


211 


day  are  usually  sold  on  the  next  morning's  auction. 
They  are  usually  put  up  in  lots  of  10  or  20  packages, 
and  if  any  individual  happens  to  have  less  than  a  lot 
of  10  they  will  be  auctioned  off  separately,  allowing  each 
man's  fruit  to  be  sold  by  itself. 

Most  auction  companies  provide  regular .  warehouses 
in  which  the  fruit  can  be  handled.    They  also  have  con- 


Fig.  111.— FRUIT  SAMPLES  ARRANGED  IN  THE  WAREHOUSE 
OF  AN  AUCTION  COMPANY 

venient  auction  rooms.  These  are  arranged  something 
like  the  seats  in  a  theatre  (Fig.  113).  Each  member  be- 
longing to  the  auction  company  is  assigned  to  a  seat  and, 
when  anything  is  put  up  that  he  is  interested  in,  he  goes 
and  bids  in  as  much  as  desired,  as  each  article  comes  up 
for  sale.  This  make's  everything  open  and  above  board,  and 
gives  a  chance  for  the  public  and  the  owner  to  go  in  and 
watch  his  goods  auctioned  off,  and  gives  an  opportunity 
for  the  agent  of  the  company  to  check  up.  There  is  not 
the  possibility  of  doing  the  rebate  work  that  sometimes  oc- 
curs in  the  other  lines  of  fruit  selling. 


212 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


Fig.   112.— CATALOGS  OF  AUCTION   SALES 

Most  of  the  auction  companies  pay  the  freight,  switch- 
ing car  service,  demurrage,  and  incidental  charges,  and 
deduct  the  amount  from  the  gross  proceeds  of  the  sale 
of  the  goods  that  are  shipped  them.  A  check  covering 
the  net  proceeds  of  each  shipment  is  mailed  to  the  man- 


Fig.  113.— FRUIT  AUCTION  ROOM,  NEW  YORK  CITY 


SELLING    METHODS  213 

ager  of  the  exchange  within  .24  hours  after  the  sale. 
For  the  service  rendered,  the  auction  companies  get  their 
pay  in  two  ways :  first,  they  charge  the  people  who  are 
dealing  with  them  a  price  of  5  cents  a  package  for  the 
purpose  of  doing  business  through  the  auction.  This 
goes  to  defray  the  expense,  discount,  collection,  and  of 
guaranteeing  the  sale.  They  also  receive  from  2  to  3% 
of  the  gross  sales  from  the  shippers  for  handling  the 
goods.  Thus,  the  buyer  as  well  as  the  seller  contributes 
a  certain  amount  to  the  maintenance  of  the  auction  busi- 
ness. Every  concern,  that  is  engaged  in  the  auction 
business  has  a  set  of  rules  whereby  it  governs  the  people 
who  do  the  buying.  A  copy  of  the  rules  governing  the 
sales  of  one  of  the  better  known  companies  is  added,  so 
that  the  reader  may  see  more  clearly  the  method  of  hand- 
ling the  fruit: 

TERMS  OF  SALE 

United  Fruit  Auction  Company  of  Detroit,  Michigan 

To  those  having  established  credit,  bills  are  due  and  payable 
the  second  day  following  date  of  sale,  and  must  be  paid  at  such 
time  or  no  further  credit  will  be  extended. 

Those  XOT  having  credit  must  make  a  deposit,  before  sale,  of 
FIVE  DOLLAKS  or  more  at  the  office,  as  a  guarantee  of  good 
faith,  or  bid  will  not  be  recognized  at  the  Auction. 

All  goods  are  sold  as  they  are  and  where  they  stand,  with  ab- 
solutely no  discounts  or  rebates. 

Samples  are  selected  at  random,  or  as  they  come,  with  no  effort 
to  conceal  quality  or  condition. 

Buyers  are  invited  to  thoroughly  inspect  fruit  before  sale,  but 
are  requested  to  leave  same  in  condition  as  found. 

Sampling  is  Positively  Prohibited. 

Ten  packages  will  be  the  minimum  quantity  that  will  be  sold  or 
invoiced  to  any  one  buyer  unless  the  line  being  sold  contains  less 
than  said  number. 


2H  MODERN  FRUIT  MARKETING 

All  goods  must  be  removed  immediately  after  the  close  of  the 
sale,  and  if  not  so  removed  within  three  hours,  goods  will  be  de- 
livered at  the  buyer's  expense. 

Under  no  circumstances  will  buyers  be  allowed  to  re-sell  goods 
on  the  floor  of  the  auction  room. 

Every  package  sold  subject  to  our  usual  terminal  or  warehouse 
charge  of  5  cents  per  package. 

The  auctions  are  made  use  of  by  the  large  exchanges 
in  several  ways.  In  the  first  place  they  get  quick  ac- 


Fig.   113o. — DELIVERING   AFTER   THE   SALES 

tion  for  the  more  perishable  goods,  even  where  there  are 
special  salesmen  endeavoring  to  hunt  markets.  Cars 
that  start  out  from  their  origin  as  " tramp  cars"  are 
always  intended  to  be  sold  before  they  reach  their 
destination.  In  case  they  still  remain  "tramp  cars" 
until  arriving  in  the  larger  market,  they  then  must  be 
disposed  of.  This  always  gives  the  exchanges  a  chance  to 
get  the  fruit  sold  in  a  very  quick  and  efficient  manner. 

Exporters  of  fruit  imported  from  Europe  and  from 
the  other  continents  did  not  find  it  convenient  to  keep 


SELLING    METHODS  215 

a  sales  force  in  this  country.  They  simply  have  one 
agent  and,  by  consigning  everything  to  this  agent,  allow 
him  to  handle  an  enormous  business  through  the  auction 
companies.  Even  large  organizations  sell  practically  all 
of  their  imported  fruits  through  the  auction  companies. 
In  a  like  manner  most  of  the  fruit  that  is  shipped  from 


Fig.    114.— THE    FREE  CITY   MARKET   AT   BOSTON,   MASS. 

Many   cities  have   similar  free  markets  where  produce   may  be  sold   as 

it  comes  in   from   the   farm. 

the  United  States  to  England,  especially  fresh  fruit,  is 
sold  at  auction  abroad. 

Their  method  of  doing  business  is  somewhat  different 
than  the  auctions  in  the  United  States,  in  that  it  is 
more  strict  and  has  less  publicity.  Fruit  that  is  im- 
ported from  the  United  States  is  taken  to  the  dock  and 
samples  opened  up  for  inspection.  Most  of  the  auction- 
ing is  done  in  the  warehouse,  on  the  docks.  The  fruit 
is  sold  in  barrel  or  box  lots,  the  auctioning  lasting  from 
10  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  the  day's  shipments  are 
sold  out.  There  are  four  or  five  auctioneers  taking  turns 


216  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

of  20  minutes  each.  They  are  paid  on  a  commission  basis 
for  the  amount  of  fruit  they  sell. 

No  one  in  England  except  licensed  buyers  are  per- 
mitted in  the  auction  room.  They  have  to  pay  certain 
fees  to  belong  to  the  company  and  to  have  the  privilege 
of  buying.  Each  one's  record,  his  bank  references  and 
reliability  must  be  certified  to  before  he  can  become  a 
member.  This  apparently  is  necessary  in  order  that  the 
auction  company  may  guarantee  their  sales.  They  are 
supposed  to  remit  within  24  hours  after  the  sale  and 
then  collect  from  the  buyers  cash  in  5  to  10  days.  If 
buyers  were  allowed  indiscriminately  to  bid  in  the  fruit 
there  would  of  necessity  be  considerable  chance  for 
buyers  to  default,  and  then  the  auction  company  would 
be  the  loser.  Hence  only  regular  licensed  members  can 
buy  fruit  at  the  auction  of  the  foreign  markets. 

Special  Retail. — This  is  a  system  of  disposing  of  fruit 
that  has  only  recently  become  of  any  material  impor- 
tance. The  tendency  is  to  eliminate  the  middleman 
wherever  possible  and  deal  direct  with  the  consumer. 
To  do  this  several  methods  have  been  made  use  of. 
The  most  common  is  the  parcel  post.  Many  of  the  more 
perishable  fruits  can  now  be  packed  in  special  cartons 
and  sent  through  the  mail  direct  to  the  consumer.  Some 
of  the  less  perishable  kinds  of  fruit  and  their  by^ 
products,  such  as  prunes,  dried  fruit,  nuts,  etc.,  enjoy 
an  especially  low  postal  rate,  hence  there  are  possibili- 
ties in  disposing  of  large  quantities  of  fruit  in  this 
manner. 

Many  of  the  various  express  companies  have  followed 
the  example  set  by  the  Government  in  the  use  of  the 
parcel  post,  by  establishing  low  express  rates  intending 


SELLING   METHODS  217 

to  favor  special  retail.  One  company  has,  in  addition 
to  the  above,  attempted  to  help  sales  by  finding  markets 
for  the  produce.  This  is  done  by  organizing  family  pur- 
chasing clubs  in  the  larger  cities,  and  furnishing  such 
clubs  with  prices  and  kinds  of  produce  that  can  be  de- 
livered. This  furnishes  an  outlet  for  certain  growers  who 
are  favorably  located  and  care  to  list  their  goods  with  an 
express  company.  This  plan  is  reported  as  working 


Fig.    115.— PEDDLING  FRUIT  IN   ONE   OF   THE   TENEMENT 
SECTIONS  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY 


successfully  in  several  cities  and  its  prospect  for  doing 
an  unlimited  business  depends  almost  entirely  on  the 
skill  in  perfecting  the  buying  agencies. 

Certain  progressive  fruit  growers  have  for  years  en- 
joyed special  retail  markets  such  as  hotels,  summer  re- 
sorts, club  houses,  etc.  This  method  is  now  being  en- 
larged upon  and  cooperative  fruit  organizations  are 
supplying  direct  many  such  places  which  were  previ- 


218 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


ously  being  handled  by  wholesalers  or  commission  houses. 
Such  markets  are  usually  highly  specialized  and  call  for 
high  grade  fruit.  Many  organizations  are  well  quali- 
fied to  handle  this  trade,  as  their  goods  are  standardized 
and  their  ability  to  deliver  the  right  produce  at  the 
right  time  wins  the  respect  and  confidence  of  the  patrons. 
Other  Agencies. — There  are  various  other  channels 
through  which  fruit  may  pass  to  the  consumer,  repre- 


116.— FRUIT  STANDS  ON  THE  STREET  NEAR 
GARBAGE  BARRELS 


sented  for  the  most  part  as  a  side  issue  of  some  large 
produce-handling  organizations.  Some  of  the  more  com- 
mon of  these  that  might  be  mentioned  are  the  produce 
jobbers,  the  selling  exchanges  and  the  fruit  distributing 
companies.  Many  of  these  are  large,  well-organized 
companies  and  do  a  tremendous  business  in  food  sup- 
plies. As  some  of  these  agencies  will  be  considered  sep- 
arately later  on,  their  method  of  handling  the  fruit 
may  be  here  omitted.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  these  or- 


SELLING    METHODS 


219 


Fig.    117.— BUYING    FROM    PUSH-CARTS—EAST    SIDE, 
NEW  YORK   CITY 


Fig.    118.— A    NEW   YORK    SIDEWALK    FRUIT    MARKET, 
BOTH  WHOLESALE  AND  RETAIL 


220 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


ganizations  are  not  interested  in  production  and  only 
concern  themselves  in  problems  of  distribution. 

Retailing. — This  is  the  last  step  in  which  the  fruit 
passes  into  the  hands  of  the  consumer.  The  retailer  is 
the  one  next  to  the  producer  who  is  most  vitally  inter- 
ested, as  he  pays  the  bills  and  commissions  to  all  the 


Fig.    119.— A    SPECIAL    RETAIL    MARKET 

middlemen.  Retailing  is  the  most  expensive  part  of 
all  the  processes  of  distribution,  because  it  involves  the 
element  of  service  which  the  city  buyer  demands.  The 
fruit  in  itself  may  be*  comparatively  cheap  but  the  ex- 
pense of  getting  it  to  the  consumer  is  often  large.  The 
crowded  conditions  in  the  cities,  the  reluctance  with 
which  the  average  commuter  carries  home  packages,  and 
the  lack  of  judgment  and  foresight  displayed  by  the 
average  housewife  in  buying  supplies,  all  contribute  to 
the  cost  of  service.  This  is  a  difficulty  that  can  only  be 
remedied  by  cooperation  among  the  retailers.  At  present 


SELLING   METHODS 


221 


Fig.   120.— A   SIDEWALK  USED  AS   A  FRUIT  MARKET. 
DECIDEDLY  UNSANITARY 

there  is  no  strong  incentive  for  such  cooperation  and  it 
will  be  necessary  for  the  buyers  to  take  the  initiative. 

There  is  a  branch  of  the  fruit  retail  trade  which  has 
to  do  with  the  street  stands,  booths,  pushcarts,  etc., 
which  cannot  be  passed  over  without  a  word  of  com- 
ment. These  doubtless  fill  some  definite  need  in  the 
economy  of  distribution,  but  their  methods  of  handling 


Fig.    121.— FRUIT   MARKET   UNDER   WILUAMSBURG   BRIDGE, 
NEW  YORK  CITY 


222 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


the  fruit  are  often  open  to  objection.  Such  stands  are 
usually  out  in  the  open,  exposed  to  the  dust  and  dirt  of 
the  city  streets,  the  fruit  is  polished  and  handled  with 
dirty  hands  and  is  in  many  ways  unsanitary.  Some 
cities  have  inspection  laws  covering  their  fruit  stands 
but,  mostly,  they  are  operated  with  entire  disregard  to 
approved  sanitary  conditions. 


Fig.    122.— A  LESS   OFFENSIVE   FRUIT    STAND 


CHAPTER  XI 

SPECIAL  FRUIT  ORGANIZATIONS 

Fruit  Distributors. — During  the  past  five  or  six  years 
a  new  type  of  fruit  organizations  has  appeared  which  has 
to  do  exclusively  with  the  selling  or  distributing  of  the 
fruit.  Some  of  these  take  the  title  of  exchange  but 
most  of  them  are  known  as  distributing  associations. 
These  kind  of  organizations  have  been  the  outgrowth 
of  definite  efforts  to  simplify  the  methods  of  distribution. 
The  old  plan  where  each  exchange  attempted  to  do  its 
own  selling  was  found  to  be  cumbersome  and  too  ex- 
pensive. As  the  number  of  exchanges  increased  it  was 
found  that  they  were  competing  with  each  other  in 
selling  the  fruit.  This  called  for  higher  priced  sales- 
men and  various  additional  expenses.  Later,  many  local 
associations  combined  and  attempted  to  sell  the  output 
through  a  central  office.  This  worked  well  for  a  while 
and,  at  present,  the  bulk  of  the  fruit  is  being  handled  in 
this  way.  Xow,  when  there  is  scattered  through  the 
Central  and  Western  states  over  300  fruit  organizations, 
this  method  of  distributing  was  again  getting  cumber- 
some. Thus  special  distributing  organizations  have  re- 
sulted. 

California  Fruit  Distributors. — This  was  the  first  ef- 
fort to  combine  a  number  of  exchanges  for  the  exclusive 
selling  of  the  fruit.  Delegates  from  the  various  organiza- 
tions formed  a  separate  corporation.  The  selling  forces 

223 


224  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

of  all  the  exchanges  were  combined  thus  reducing  the  cost 
and  increasing  the  efficiency.  This  organization  is  now 
handling  all  of  the  fruit  for  15  companies  comprising 
about  15,000  cars  annually. 

While  it  may  appear  to  the  casual  thinker  that  this 
system  of  distribution  complicates  matters,  it  in  reality 
simplifies  them.  The  exchange  can  pay  more  attention 
to  the  production  of  fruit,  and  when  it  is  ready  for  sale 
turns  it  over  to  the  distributors.  The  delegates  from 
the  various  exchanges  become  directors  in  the  distribut- 
ing association,  hence  the  management  is  always  within 
the  control  of  the  producing  organizations.  The  system 
of  distributing  unifies  the  methods  of  handling  the  fruit 
in  so  far  as  the  marketing  is  concerned.  Uniform  rules 
regarding  the  harvesting  and  packing  are  established, 
and  instead  of  having  several  different  grades  or  brands 
one  or  two  set  standards  are  established.  This  larger 
quantity  of  fruit  handled  attracts  attention  on  the 
larger  markets,  enables  better  methods  in  advertising 
and  reduces  the  cost  of  selling  the  fruit. 

North  Pacific  Fruit  Distributors. — At  present  this 
organization  represents  the  largest  distributing  associ- 
ation extant.  The  four  states  of  Oregon,  Washington, 
Idaho  and  Montana  comprise  the  territory  covered  by 
the  association.  All  of  these  states  have  had  active  fruit- 
growing organizations  for  years,  some  of  them  having 
a  membership  running  up  into  the  thousands.  These 
organizations  represented  an  industry  approximating 
250  millions.  The  great  extent  of  the  business  handled, 
and  the  fact  that  the  bulk  of  the  sales  must  be  made 
in  other  states  than  their  own,  made  competition  in  the 
selling  end  uncomfortably  keen.  Progressive  leaders  of 


SPECIAL    FRUIT    ORGANIZATIONS  225 

the  business  were  constantly  looking  for  means  to  elim- 
inate or  at  least  simplify  the  trouble  of  selling. 

The  first  step  towards  the  organization  of  a  central 
selling  agency  of  Northwestern  fruit  was  taken  at  the 
meeting  in  Prosser,  "Wash.,  in  January,  1911,  and  com- 
mittees made  up  of  representatives  of  the  different  fruit 
districts  worked  in  conjunction  with  the  only  cooper- 
ative non-profit  fruit  organization  then  in  existence  in 
the  Northwest;  namely,  the  Yakima  Valley  Fruit 
Growers'  Association.  They  worked  out  a  set  of  by- 
laws at  a  series  of  meetings  held  in  the  fall  of  1911  and 
the  spring  of  1912.  These  different  plans  as  worked  out 
at  these  meetings  were  brought  to  Spokane  in  November, 
1912,  during  the  National  Apple  Show,  at  which  time 
the  distributors  were  organized.  This  is  a  purely  mutual 
corporation  without  capital  stock,  organized  under  the 
non-profit  sharing  laws  of  the  State  of  Washington. 
The  association  now  comprises  nine  central  exchanges, 
composed  of  nearly  100  local  associations  which  in  turn 
are  made  up  of  over  7,000  members,  all  fruit  growers. 
The  Board  of  Directors  consists  of  nine  members,  one 
from  each  of  the  central  exchanges. 

The  first  step  this  selling  organization  took  was  to 
draft  a  set  of  rules  for  all  the  local  associations  to  grade 
and  pack  their  fruit  by.  This  immediately  unified  all  the 
grades  and  packs  of  fruit  and  permitted  a  guarantee  of 
standard  packs.  The  carrying  out  of  this  part  of  the 
work  was  left  to  the  various  producing  organizations. 
Inspectors  were  maintained  by  the  distributors  to  keep 
the  grades  and  packs  up  to  standard.  The  second  step 
was  to  organize  a  selling  force  that  could  handle  the  large 
output.  This  was  done  by  establishing  agents  in  the 


226  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

big  markets  of  the  East  and  in  Europe.  In  some  cases 
these  agents  were  salaried  men  in  the  pay  of  the  asso- 
ciation, in  other  cases  they  were  general  produce  handlers 
who  were  willing  to  accept  the  exclusive  agency  for  the 
association  for  a  given  territory.  In  a  few  cases  they 
simply  affiliated  with  some  other  exchange  already  hav- 
ing an  established  territory.  In  this  manner  76  agents 
were  established  the  first  year  in  the  various  Eastern 
markets  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  association. 

It  then  became  necessary  to  provide  money  to  carry 
on  the  business  of  selling  until  returns  began  to  come  in. 
Banks  were  asked  to  make  loans.  They  responded  loy- 
ally and,  in  the  two  years,  1913  and  1914,  loaned  over 
$1,000,000  for  the  handling  of  the  business  and  for  ad- 
vances to  the  growers  through  the  sub-exchanges.  These 
loans  were  all  returned  at  the  close  of  the  season,  being 
paid  out  of  the  charges  on  each  package  for  selling  the 
fruit.  Gradually  a  surplus  working  capital  is  being  ac- 
cumulated which,  in  time,  will  place  the  distributors  on 
a  permanent  cash  basis. 

The  cost  of  selling  was  to  be  provided  for  by  a  flat 
tax  on  each  package  sold.  For  the  first  year  this  was 
started  on  the  basis  of  5  cents  a  box  for  apples,  4  cents 
a  box  for  pears,  2y2  cents  per  crate  for  prunes  and  l1/^ 
cents  per  box  for  peaches.  The  surplus  over  and  above 
the  actual  cost  of  selling  was  held  as  a  contingent  fund 
against  the  beginning  of  the  next  year's  operations. 

The  next  thing  to  arrange  for  was  to  get  a  forecast  of 
the  amount  of  fruit  to  be  sold,  the  varieties,  grades,  etc. 
The  methods  of  collecting  this  data  has  been  described 
in  a  previous  chapter.  The  important  point,  however, 
was  to  have  this  information  available  several  weeks  be- 


SPECIAL   FRUIT   ORGANIZATIONS  227 

fore  the  harvesting  began  so  the  agents  could  get  ad- 
vance sales.  In  this  manner  several  hundred  carloads 
were  sold  before  any  fruit  was  harvested.  This  associa^ 
tion,  handling  all  the  different  kinds  of  fruit  as  well  as 
vegetables,  was  able  to  keep  the  selling  force  active 
throughout  the  year,  thus  maintaining  a  permanent  sell- 
ing organization. 

The  sales  policy  was  developed  along  rather  broad 
lines.  The  prevailing  custom  had  been  to  start  off  the 
season  with  as  high  a  price  as  the  market  would  stand 
and  then  drop  as  it  became  necessary  to  move  the  fruit. 
The  distributing  association  did  not  do  this,  but  instead 
started  the  season  rather  low  and  maintained  a  uniform 
price  throughout  the  year.  This  inspired  confidence 
among  the  buyers  and  they  were  not  afraid  to  stock 
up  heavy  early  in  the  season.  The  advance  sales  were 
moved  out  as  the  fruit  became  available.  The  cars  were 
loaded  with  mixed  varieties  and  grades,  according  to 
the  wishes  of  the  buyers. 

Fruit  that  was  not  sold  when  ready  to  ship  was  either 
placed  in  storage  or  started  East  as  tramp  cars,  trusting 
that  the  agents  would  be  able  to  place  them  by  the  time 
they  reached  their  destination.  Such  tramp  cars  would 
be  consigned  to  some  Eastern  agent.  A  complete  mani- 
fest of  the  contents  of  the  car  was  mailed  to  each  agent 
with  instructions  to  sell  at  the  market  or  a  definite  price 
might  be  set  by  the  sales  manager.  If  the  car  was  not 
sold  by  the  time  of  its  arrival  it  would  be  placed  in 
storage  or  disposed  of  through  the  auctions. 

Results  of  the  First  Year. — The  selling  was  com- 
menced in  July.,  1913,  and  the  first  year  a  total  of  6,208 
cars  were  handled.  The  business  comprised  nearly 


228  MODERN*   FRUIT    MARKETING 

3,000,000  packages  exclusive  cf  the  vegetables,  return- 
ing to  the  distributors  over  $3,000,000  net.  This  fruit 
was  shipped  to  243  cities  in  38  states,  to  33  cities  in  six 
Canadian  Provinces  and  179  carloads  were  exported  to 
16  cities  in  10  European  countries.  Of  the  3,958  cars  of 
fruit  shipped,  54%  started  on  f.  o.  b.  order  and  45% 
as  tramp  cars.  Of  these,  83%  w^ere  delivered  on  f.  o.  b. 
basis,  the  balance  being  consigned  or  sold  through  the 
auctions..  This  means  that  about  90%  of  the  fruit  that 
was  started  as  tramps  was  sold  by  the  agents  before  ar- 
rival at  the  Eastern  destination.  In  previous  years, 
when  handled  by  the  separate  exchanges,  it  was  estimated 
that  less  than  30%  of  the  fruit  was  sold  on  an  f.  o.  b. 
basis. 

As  one  might  expect,  this  organization  had  its  diffi- 
culties. Cars  were  rejected.  Some  met  with  accident  in 
transit.  Some  of  the  packs  and  grades  were  not  up  to 
standard.  Claims  were  filed  against  the  concern  that 
had  to  be  debated  in  court.  But  through  it  all,  quite  a 
remarkable  record  was  made  for  the  first  year.  What 
the  final  outcome  will  be  time  alone  will  tell.  It  is  likely 
that  some  of  the  local  associations  will  withdraw.  Some 
of  the  details  may  have  to  be  re-organized  but  the  basic 
fundamental  principles  of  the  plan  are  correct. 

In  the  first  annual  report  of  the  organization  is  given 
a  list  of  17  reasons  why  the  distributing  association  is 
desirable  for  fruit  growers  of  the  Pacific  Northwest.  A 
part  of  these  follow  that  the  reader  may  draw  his  own 
conclusions. 

1.  It  places  at  the  service  of  the  grower  a  body  of 
trained  and  experienced  experts,  better  equipped  and 
better  informed  than  the  buyers;  it  maintains  a  com- 


SPECIAL   FRUIT   ORGANIZATIONS  229 

prehensive  and  trustworthy  system,  of  gathering  crop 
estimates  and  daily  market  reports  at  a  cost  of  many 
thousand  dollars,  to  adequately  serve  the  grower ;  it  thus 
puts  the  grower  in  an  advantageous  position  in  his  rela- 
tionship to  the  trade. 

2.  It  distributes  the  growers'  fruits-,  by  intelligent  or- 
ganization, to  all  of  the  markets  so  as  to  neither  over- 
supply  nor  under-supply  any  particular  market,   and 
provides  an  agency  large  enough  to  seek  and  find  new 
markets  as  well  as  develop  old  ones. 

3.  It  markets  the  growers'  fruit  in  an  extensive  but 
conservative  and  economical  manner  and  without  ruin- 
ous competition. 

4.  It  furnishes  the  grower  with  personal  represent- 
atives in  every  important  market  center  in  America  and 
Europe,  and  in  fact,  the  world,  whose  first  consideration 
is  the  growers'  interest,  who  examine  the  fruit  in  transit, 
repair  damages,  and  where  necessary,  protect  the  grower 
against  improper  demands  for  allowances,  etc. 

5.  It  secures  a  uniform  and  dependable  grade  and 
pack  of  the  fruit  throughout  every  district — a  thing  of 
great  value  to  the  trade  and,  therefore,  to  the  grower 
seeking  the  trade — and  it  is  thereby  enabled  to  back  the 
brand  of  each  district  with  a  guarantee  that  will  bring 
a  higher  price  for  the  fruit  than  for  other  fruit  outside 
of  such  a  brand. 

6.  It  properly  and  scientifically  advertises  the  grower's 
fruit  and  returns  the  full  value  of  that  advertising  to 
the  grower. 

7.  It  gives  the  grower  the  power,  backed  by  the  ex- 
clusive service  of  skilled  legal,  traffic  and  claim  depart- 


230  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

ments,  to  secure  justice  and  fair  dealing  in  all  instances 
from  buyers,  railroads,  etc. 

8.  It  removes  from  the  methods  and  practices  of  the 
fruit  business  the  objectionable  and  obstructive  features, 
the  strength  and  influence  of  7,000  united  growers  being 
vastly  more  effective  than  that  of  7,000  individual  dis- 
interested units. 

9.  It  gives  the  grower  control  of  his  own  product  from 
orchard  to  market,  thus  enabling  him  to  secure  the  hand- 
ling of  his  fruit  by  the  legitimate  trade  at  an  equitable 
cost. 

10.  It  can,  by  reason  of  its  all-district  representation, 
supply  any  quantity  or  any  variety  of  any  fruit  to  meet 
the  most  exacting  and  preemptory  demands  of  the  trade 
and  thus  avail  the  grower  of  the  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  such  special  service1. 

North  American  Fruit  Exchange. — This  is  one  of  the 
latest  developments  in  the  fruit-distributing  business 
and  represents  a  condition  different  from  either  of  the 
other  two  distributing  organizations  mentioned.  It  is 
much  more  comprehensive  in  its  nature,  taking  in  a  wider 
territory  and  handling  a  much  wider  range  of  products. 
Instead  of  being  located  in  the  producing  centers,  its 
headquarters  is  located  in  New  York,  the  chief  center 
of  markets.  It  is  really  an  exchange  of  exchanges.  Or- 
ganized fruit-producing  societies  and  large  shippers  con- 
trolling a  sufficient  value  of  business  can  become  mem- 
bers. This  is  a  stock  corporation,  but  only  sufficient  stock 
was  issued  to  cover  the  actual  operating  expenses.  It  was 
organized  in  1911,  under  the  laws  of  the  state  of  New 
Jersey,  with  a  capital  stock  of  $100,000.  The  privilege  of 

1  From  First  Annual  Report,  North  Pacific  Fruit  Distributors,   1913. 


SPECIAL   FRUIT   ORGANIZATIONS  231 

increasing  this  stock  was  provided  for  as  conditions  would 
warrant.  The  directors  in  the  exchange  are  men  from 
widely  different  sections  ranging  from  Oregon  to  Florida. 

The  kind  of  exchange  that  may  become  a  member  of 
this  organization  is  without  limit.  Being  located  where 
the  markets  are,  it  becomes  readily  available  as  an  ex- 
clusive agent  for  any  of  the  other  distributing  societies 
or  for  affiliation  with  any  of  the  other  larger  exchanges 
which  already  have  their  selling  offices  arranged  for  in 
the  East. 

The  great  advantage  argued  in  favor  of  the  location  of 
the  exchange  has  been  borne  out  by  records  of  the  past 
two  or  three  years.  The  one  great  object  of  the  exchange 
was  to  maintain  an  efficient  selling  force  throughout  the 
entire  year,  and  thus  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  cost 
of  selling  the  fruit.  By  this  method  exchanges  operat- 
ing in  the  Pacific  Northwest,  in  the  Central  and  Southern 
states  such  as  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  etc.,  and 
also  in  the  Southeastern  states  such  as  Florida  and  even 
outside  of  the  United  States  in  Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico 
have  become  members  of  this  organization.  In  this  way 
the  selling  force  has  a  large  territory  to  draw  from  and 
handles  almost  every  known  kind  of  fruit. 

In  the  early  spring  the  fruits  from  Florida  and  the 
Southwest  come  in  and  are  handled  by  the  organization. 
Later,  the  deciduous  fruits  from  Georgia  and  from  the 
other  Southern  states  are  taken  up.  Then  as  the  season 
advances  more  of  the  Northern  grown  fruits  appear  until 
finally  the  apple,  which  lasts  through  the  winter  and 
into  the  spring,  when  fruits  of  the  next  season  again 
appear.  Thus  highly  and  efficiently  trained  salesmen 
are  available  all  the  vear  around.  The  markets  that 


232  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

demand  large  variety  and  kinds  of  fruits  can  be  sup- 
plied through  this  one  firm,  and  in  every  way  it  works 
to  the  interest  of  all  concerned. 

In  order  to  become  a  member  of  this  selling  organiza- 
tion it  is  necessary  to  execute  a  contract  in  favor  of  the 
North  American  Fruit  Exchange  for  all  or  a  certain 
per  cent  of  the  entire  output  of  the  local  association. 
Then  they  must  be  supplied  with  data  regarding  va- 
rieties and  kinds  of  fruit  as  far  ahead  of  harvesting  time 
as  possible.  The  details  of  the  selling  are  handled  very 
much  the  same  as  of  other  organizations. 

The  methods  of  selling  the  fruit  are  as  varied  as  the 
conditions  of  the  market  demand.  They  have  special 
salesmen  to  call  upon  the  trade  and  arrange  for  deliveries 
ahead  of  time.  They  have  a  wide  range  of  sales  among 
the  jobbing  houses,  who  carry  large  supplies  of  the 
fruits  which  are  handled  through  the  smaller  grocery 
and  retail  stores  throughout  the  country.  They  also 
cater  to  special  markets,  large  hotels,  private  trades, 
clubs,  resorts,  etc.,  and  even  strenuous  efforts  are  being 
made  to  sell  direct  to  the  consumer.  Advertising  cam- 
paigns are  being  carried  out  through  which  the  exchange 
advises  the  consuming  public  of  the  special  qualities  of 
various  brands  of  fruit.  They  also  maintain  offices  in 
Europe  and  in  some  of  the  South  American  countries 
to  take  care  of  trade  in  those  places.  Always  the  per- 
sonal representative  of  the  organization  looks  after  the 
interest  of  the  fruit  producers,  hence  there  is  much 
greater  efficiency  and  more  of  the  personal  interest  in 
the  business  at  hand. 

Fruit  Jobbers. — These  people  are  dealers  in  food  stuffs 
and  represent  a  special  class  of  produce  handlers.  The 


SPECIAL   FRUIT    ORGANIZATIONS  233 

buying  and  distributing  of  fruit  is  only  a  part  of  their 
work,  but  a  part  that  is  so  important  that  it  ought  to  be 
included  in  any  discussion  on  the  marketing  of  fruit. 
The  great  function  of  the  jobbing  houses  is  to  supply 
food  products  to  the  retail  grocery  stores  throughout  the 
country.  They  are  the  food  bankers  of  the  country. 

The  fruit  jobbers  collect  foods  from  the  four  corners 
of  the  world  and  pass  them  along  to  the  retail  stores 
and  through  the  retail  stores  to  the  consumer.  The 
average  grocery  store  could  no  more  buy  each  of  its 
many  hundred  brands  of  food  products  direct  from  the 
makers  or  growers  than  each  producer  could  sell  direct 
to  the  consumer,  hence  the  jobbers  storehouses  serve  as 
intermediaries  between  the  producer  and  consumer. 

The  jobbing  houses  have  represented  for  years  an 
organized  industry  that  the  average  layman  knows  little 
or  nothing  about.  They  have  their  central  organization, 
their  branch  houses,  their  buying  field  agents ;  and  have 
fitted  into  the  needs  of  the  country  so  closely  that  we  are 
hardly  aware  of  their  existence.  Their  business  repre- 
sents a  sum  of  money  equalling,  if  not  exceeding,  the 
fruit  crop  of  the  United  States. 

Their  methods  of  operating  are  not  much  different 
from  those  of  any  other  business  concern.  Their  agents 
are  sent  out  into  the  field  to  contract  supplies,  sometimes 
two  or  three  years  ahead  of  time.  They  visit  the  various 
canning  factories  and  arrange  for  so  many  thousand 
cases  of  canned  goods.  Sometimes  they  even  furnish 
the  seed  to  grow  the  vegetables,  and  occasionally  have  had 
to  buy  the  canning  factory  to  get  the  goods  put  up  the 
way  they  are  wanted.  They  visit  the  fruit-producing 
sections  and  contract  for  the  fruit  they  want.  They 


234  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

particularly  handle  enormous  quantities  of  the  various 
fruit  byproducts.  The  great  bulk  of  the  f.  o.  b.  sales 
made  by  fruit  exchanges  go  to  these  jobbing  houses. 
They  keep  watch  of  the  importations  and  have  their 
agents  constantly  at  the  auctions  to  keep  the  warehouses 
supplied  from  day  to  day. 

The  commodities  they  handle  are  without  number, 
and  many  of  the  articles  of  food  consumed  daily  by  the 
average  individual  have  been  prepared  for  him  by  the 
jobbers  in  ways  he  is  little  aware  of.  Our  favorite 
brands  of  coffee,  supposed  to  come  direct  from  the  grow- 
ers in  the  tropics,  are  usually  cleaned,  mixed,  graded,  and 
roasted  in  the  warehouse  of  the  jobbers  in  New  York  and 
Boston  (Fig.  123).  The  tea  from  China  and  Ceylon,  im- 
ported in  great  unsightly,  crude  packages,  is  put  into 
usable  and  respectable  looking  packages  before  being 
passed  along  to  the  consumer.  Olives  from  Spain  and 
Italy  are  ungraded,  unsized  and  packed  in  huge  hogs- 
heads when  imported.  These  are  put  through  a  rigid 
grading  process.  The  best  olives  are  stuffed  and  placed 
in  American  made  bottles.  The  rest  are  sorted  to  size  and 
color,  and  put  into  various  packages  according  to  their 
condition. 

The  dates  from  Africa,  the  dried  currants 2  from 
Greece,  the  cocoanuts  from  South  America  and  spices 
from  the  tropics  are  all  put  through  a  cleaning  process 
in  the  warehouse  of  the  jobbers  in  this  country.  Few 
of  the  more  intelligent  of  the  consuming  public  would 
enjoy  eating  most  of  this  imported  fruit  if  they  saw  it 
before  the  jobbers  made  it  over  into  presentable  form. 
Most  of  the  dates,  figs  and  currants  are  washed,  disin- 

?  Really  a  grape. 


SPECIAL   FRUIT    ORGANIZATIONS  235 

fected  and  dried  by  the  jobbers  before  being  offered  to 
the  public.  "Walnut  meats  are  hand-brushed  and  then 
disinfected  before  re-packing-.  Cocoanuts  are  ground 
and  shredded,  spices  re-cleaned,  extracts  refined  in  the 
jobbers '  special  warehouses.  Our  people  have  become  so 


Fig.  123.— ROASTING  COFFEE  IX  A  NEW  YORK  JOBBING  HOUSE 

accustomed  to  seeing  foreign  goods  packed  in  good 
American  packages  that  they  have  ceased  to  wonder  at 
the  wide  knowledge  of  English  the  world  over. 

Business  Credit. — It  will  be  worth  while  to  digress 
here  slightly  to  comment  upon  the  credit  system  built 
up  by  the  jobbing  business.  While  capital  must  neces- 
sarily be  represented,  and  often  in  a  big  way,  the  bulk 
of  the  monthly  business  is  conducted  entirely  on  credit, 


236  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Take  a  specific  product  like  canned  tomatoes.  The  job- 
ber's agent  goes  out  to  the  canning  factory  and  contracts 
for  10,000  cases  of  tomatoes  to  be  delivered  at  intervals 
of  two  weeks  in  car  lots.  The  canning  factory  agent  goes 
to  the  farmer  and  contracts  a  sufficient  number  of  acres 
to  supply  the  capacity  of  the  factory.  Agreeing  to  pay 
a  certain  per  cent  of  the  monthly  deliveries  and  the  bal- 
ance at  the  close  of  the  season. 

In  due  time  the  tomatoes  are  grown  and  delivered  at 
the  factory.  The  factory  sends  out  its  first  car  with  a 
bill  for  cash  in  60  days.  The  jobbers  receive  the  goods 
and  immediately  re-sell  to  the  groceryman  or  retailers 
and  bill  them  for  30  days  cash.  The  grocery  sells  to 
the  consumer  with  weekly  cash  payments.  At  the  end 
of  the  week  the  consumer  goes  to  the  grocery  store  and 
pays  his  bill  for  the  goods.  At  the  end  of  the  month 
the  retailer  pays  his  bill  to  the  jobbing  houses.  Then 
the  jobber  remits  to  the  canning  company  which,  in 
turn,  makes  a  payment  to  the  grower.  In  this  manner 
the  consumer's  dollar  is  passed  along  to  the  producer, 
shrinking  a  little  each  time  it  changes  hands. 

When  the  country  is  prosperous  and  everybody  is 
working  at  a  good  wage  everything  runs  smoothly.  But 
a  panic  may  appear  and  a  number  of  men  be  thrown  out 
of  employment.  This  makes  it  difficult  for  the  retailer 
to  collect  his  bills.  The  jobbing  house  has  the  same 
trouble  and  the  canning  company  has  to  wait  on  the  con- 
venience of  the  jobber.  Consequently  the  grower  does 
not  get  his  money  on  time.  Thus  hard  times  prevail  all 
along  the  line.  If  such  panics  are  not  serious  banks  can 
usually  be  depended  upon  to  advance  sufficient  money  to 
tide  over  the  depression.  But  if  conditions  are  bad  the 


SPECIAL    FRUIT   ORGANIZATIONS  237 

banks  will  hesitate  and  the  business  must  suffer  and 
undergo  an  entire  readjustment. 

What  the  jobbers  have  done  in  the  way  of  credit  in 
the  distribution  of  foodstuffs  the  fruit  exchanges  are 
now  doing  in  the  distribution  of  fruit.  It  is  simply  ap- 
plying the  principles  of  a  well-established  business  to 
the  handling  of  the  various  fruits. 

National  League  of  Commission  Merchants. — There 
are  two  or  three  fruit  and  produce  organizations  which 
represent  an  affiliation  of  business  men  but  which,  as  an 
organization,  do  not  attempt  to  do  any  commercial  busi- 
ness. The  National  League  of  Commission  Merchants 
represents  an  organization  of  this  kind.  Something  of 
its  methods  has  previously  been  mentioned,  but  its 
operations  are  so  widespread  and  so  significant  that  it 
seems  advisable  to  further  describe  them. 

The  active  membership  is  composed  exclusively  of  com- 
mission men  handling  fruit  and  produce.  The  object 
of  the  organization,  as  described  in  Article  II  of  their 
constitution,  includes  the  following:  To  unite  growers 
and  producers  against  the  enactment  of  damaging  laws, 
and  in  favor  of  desirable  and  favorable  legislation.  To 
aid  in  collecting  and  disseminating  information.  To  help 
in  improving  business  methods.  To  protect  against  dis- 
criminations, exactions  and  damages  to  transportations. 
To  demand  the  integrity  and  financial  responsibility  of 
the  members  and  the  protection  of  all,  so  far  as  possible, 
from  fraud,  misrepresentation  and  injustice. 

The  National  League  of  Commission  Merchants  was 
formed  in  Chicago,  in  1893,  and  grew  out  of  an  effort 
on  the  part  of  commission  men  of  the  responsible  class 
to  forestall  dishonest  dealing  among  certain  types  pf 


238  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

their  own  profession.  Certain  abuses  among  disreputable 
produce  handlers  were  rapidly  creating  distrust  among 
fruit  growers,  hence  financially  responsible  commission 
houses  were  seeking  to  correct  the  trouble.  A  commit- 
tee was  formed  to  consider  the  credentials  of  houses  be- 
fore being  admitted  to  membership.  This  has  formed 
a  strong  membership,  a  list  of  which  is  always  available 
to  any  grower  desiring  to  do  business  through  commis- 
sion houses. 

The  membership  list  has  gradually  increased  from  year 
to  year  until  now  it  comprises  nearly  400  handlers  of 
produce.  These  may  be  found  in  41  different  cities  in  21 
different  states.  Each  firm  or  individual  belonging  to 
the  association  has  to  pay  an  annual  fee  of  $30.  These 
fees  are  turned  into  a  general  fund  from  which  various 
activities  are  maintained.  Chief  among  these  is  an  an- 
nual appropriation  of  $10,000  set  aside  to  maintain  a 
business  office.  This  is  now  located  in  New  York  City 
in  charge  of  a  manager,  who  looks  after  the  busi- 
ness of  the  organization.  In  earlier  years  the  presi- 
dent did  this,  but  the  duties  have  become  so  heavy  and 
the  difficulty  of  moving  the  office  from  city  to  city  has 
made  the  establishing  of  a  general  office  advisable. 

The  duties  of  the  manager's  office  include  the  adjust- 
ment of  transportation  rates,  where  they  appear  unrea- 
sonable or  discriminatory,  constant  vigilance  of  both  Na- 
tional and  State  legislation,  adjustment  of  loss,  damage 
and  overcharge  and  claims  against  transportation  com- 
panies, crop  conditions.  It  is  also  a  bureau  of  general 
information. 

Another  feature  of  the  organization  is  its  annual  con- 
vention, This  is  the  important  meeting  of  the  society 


SPECIAL    FRUIT    ORGANIZATIONS  239 

and  is  held  in  some  central  city,  usually  some  time  in 
January.  A  lengthy  program  is  provided  by  some  of 
the  best  educators  obtainable.  Standing  committees  on 
legislation,  transportation,  membership  and  various  na- 
tional interests  report  at  this  meeting.  These  reports 
are  valuable  in  acquainting  the  membership  of  events 
that  may  be  related  to  their  business  and  often  valuable 
legislation  is  assisted  or  freak  laws  defeated  by  the  aid 
of  the  League.  Especially  to  be  noted  is  the  aid  given 
in  getting  the  standard  barrel  bill  passed  by  the  national 
congress  in  March,  1915.  The  proceedings  of  the  annual 
convention  are  printed  and  distributed  to  the  members 
and  others  who  may  be  interested.  This  publication 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  progressive  fruit  grower. 
International  Apple  Shippers'  Association. — This  is 
an  organization  of  operators  or  dealers  in  green  apples 
upon  their  own  account;  that  is,  individuals  and  firms 
who  invest  their  money  or  credit  in  the  purchase  of 
apples.  Its  operations  center  primarily  around  the  apple 
although  its  members  handle  many  other  food  commodi- 
ties. The  last  roster  shows  over  108  different  com- 
modities handled  by  the  members  of  this  association. 
The  association  was  organized  in  Chicago,  in  1895,  with 
18  charter  members.  The  real  purpose  of  the  associa- 
tion was  to  commercialize  the  apple ;  to  improve  the 
quality  of  the  fruit  grown ;  to  establish  uniform  grades, 
encourage  honest  packing  in  standard  packages;  to  cor- 
rect abuses  in  freight  rates  and  dishonest  practices  and 
to  promote  the  best  interests  of  the  entire  industry.  No 
produce  was  handled  by  the  association  as  an  organiza- 
tion, but  a  great  educational  movement  was  started  to 
advance  the  knowledge  of  horticulture  and  to  dissemi^ 


240  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

nate  information  concerning  apple  conditions  and 
markets. 

The  association  was  made  international  in  scope  to 
include  the  provinces  of  Canada  and  England  and  the 
continent.  The  first  few  years  the  activities  of  the  or- 
ganization were  very  vigorous  and  considerable  good 
was  accomplished.  In  the  last  decade  the  peculiar  eco- 
nomic situation  of  the  apple  industry,  caused  by  the 
fluctuation  of  the  crops  from  year  to  year,  has  stimu- 
lated a  new  interest  and  the  association  has  become  par- 
ticularly active.  The  membership  has  increased  so  rap- 
idly that  now  every  fruit  section  of  the  United  States, 
Canada  and  Europe  is  well  represented. 

Membership. — Any  individual  or  firm  dealing  in 
apples  upon  his  or  their  own  account  whose  reputation, 
character  and  financial  responsibility  is  good  is  eligible 
to  membership.  The  annual  dues  are  $25,  with  a  $10 
initation  fee  for  new  members.  This  goes  toward  de- 
fraying the  expense  of  the  business  office,  the  committees, 
the  annual  meeting,  etc.  Producers  or  growers  of  apples 
who  make  no  purchases  upon  their  own  account  are  not 
eligible  to  membership  although  the  association  has  done 
a  large  work  in  disseminating  knowledge  covering  the 
methods  of  fruit  growing.  Commission  houses,  brokers 
and  selling  agencies  who  do  not  handle  apples  are  not 
eligible.  The  membership  Roster  includes  600  •  fruit 
handlers.  These  are  found  in  39  states  in  the  United 
States;  three  provinces  in  Canada,  and  in  Denmark, 
England,  Scotland  and  Germany. 

The  International  Apple  Shippers'  Association  main- 
tains a  permanent  secretary  to  look  after  the  business 
of  the  organization.  This  office  is  in  Rochester,  N.  Y. 


SPECIAL    FRUIT   ORGANIZATIONS  241 

The  amount  of  business  handled  by  the  secretary  can  be 
estimated  by  quoting  a  few  extracts  from  the  annual 
report  of  1915.  During  the  year  there  were  handled 
through  the  office  71,855  letters,  reports,  telegrams,  in- 
quiries, publications,  etc.  The  secretary  traveled  10,318 
miles  on  association  business  and  gave  numerous  ad- 
dresses before  meetings  and  conventions. 

The  secretary  also  has  to  look  after  the  various  publi- 
cations. About  3,000  copies  of  the  official  Roster  were 
prepared  and  sent  out  in  1915.  This  gives  the  names 
and  addresses  of  all  the  members  of  the  association,  the 
nature  of  their  business  and  the  commodities  that  each 
member  handles.  The  report  of  the  annual  meeting  has 
to  be  edited,  published  and  distributed.  This  constitutes 
a  nicely  prepared  pamphlet  of  about  200  pages  and  con- 
tains much  information  of  value  to  both  consumer  and 
producer  of  apples. 

Committees. — A  very  important  part  of  the  work  of 
the  association  is  that  conducted  by  the  various  com- 
mittees. At  each  annual  meeting  committees  are  ap- 
pointed to  look  after  the  varied  interests  of  the  asso- 
ciation for  the  coming  year.  Some  of  these  committees 
are  made  up  of  men  of  keen  business  intellect  and  where 
kept  on  the  same  work  for  a  period  of  years  become 
powers  for  good  in  the  work  of  the  association.  There 
are  12  permanent  committees  covering  the  following  sub- 
jects: Advertising,  arbitration,  apple  show  premiums, 
rules  for  exhibits,  grades,  international  tariffs,  legisla- 
tion, membership,  publicity,  storage  in  transit,  telephone 
and  telegraph,  ocean  transportation,  and  domestic  trans- 
portation. These  committees  work  in  cooperation  with 
the  president  and  executive  committee. 


242  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

Among  the  things  fostered  and  helped  to  successful 
conclusions  might  be  mentioned  the  following :  ( 1 )  The 
enacting  of  the  Sulzer  Bill  into  law,  establishing  a  Na- 
tional standard  apple  barrel  and  standard  grades  for 
apples.  (2)  The  New  York  and  Massachusetts  apple 
grading  laws.  (3)  The  National  law  establishing  a  stan- 
dard barrel  for  fruit  and  vegetables.  (4)  The  privilege 
of  allowing  long  distance  shipments  to  be  stopped  and 
stored  in  transit  and  re-shipped  later  without  materially 
increasing  the  cost.  Many  freak  laws  in  transportation 
and  cold  storage  have  been  helped  to  the  museum.  The 
night  letter  rate  of  the  telegraph  companies  was  insti- 
gated by  the  help  of  the  association.  The  list  could  be 
extended  indefinitely,  but  enough  has  been  given  to  indi- 
cate the  importance  of  the  work  of  the  committees.  The 
work  of  the  association  along  the  line  of  standard  grades 
and  packages  has  been  of  very  great  value.  It  has 
"blazed  the  trail"  and  led  the  way. 

Statistical  Work. — Another  very  important  part  of 
the  work  of  the  association  is  the  gathering  of  statistics. 
This  is  handled  through  the  secretary's  office  and  con- 
sists of  reports  of  fruit  in  storage  and  estimates  of  the 
prospective  crops.  These  statistics  are  published  in  spe- 
cial reports  and  distributed  to  the  members  of  the  asso- 
ciation. Estimates  of  crops  are  comparatively  easy  to 
get  as  the  association  has  a  good  membership  in  every 
producing  apple  section  in  the  United  States — men  that 
are  directly  associated  with  the  business  and  are  qualified 
to  get  accurate  data.  This  ability  to  forecast  the  size  of 
the  apple  crop,  exerts  a  valuable  influence  in  stabilizing 
the  markets.  It  prevents  the  wonder-mongers  from 
cheaping  the  product  by  constantly  talking  bumper  crops 
with  the  attended  oversupply. 


SPECIAL   FRUIT   ORGANIZATIONS  243 

The  Spy. — This  is  the  name  of  a  monthly  publication 
put  out  by  the  International  Apple  Shippers7  Associa- 
tion. It  is  edited  by  the  secretary  and  articles  are  con- 
tributed by  various  members  of  the  association  and 
others.  Eeviews  of  the  work  of  the  various  committees, 
extracts  from  bills  before  the  state  legislatures  and  Con- 
gress affecting  the  apple  industry,  special  articles,  ex- 
port movement,  and,  in  short,  the  entire  field  is  covered. 
Altogether  much  information  of  value  to  both  producers 
and  distributors  is  thus  disseminated.  The  mailing  list 
is  large  including  both  members  and  non-members. 

Publicity  Committee. — Through  the  efforts  of  this 
committee,  National  Apple  Day,  the  third  Tuesday  in 
October,  has  been  firmly  established  and  widely  cele- 
brated from  ocean  to  ocean.  Splendid  publicity  has  thus 
been  obtained  for  the  apple.  The  amount  of  advertising 
thus  obtained  has  been  almost  invaluable.  The  Inter- 
national Apple  Shippers'  Association  is  especially  fitted 
for  this  work.  It  has  a  local  chairman  in  every  city  of 
any  size  in  the  country  and  in  this  way  gets  action.  Two 
silver  cups,  known  as  National  Apple  Day  Trophies,  are 
offered  for  the  best  celebration  of  the  day.  One  is  limited 
to  cities  of  500,000  and  over,  and  the  other  to  cities 
under  500,000.  Last  year  there  was  but  one  cup,  which 
was  won  by  Cincinnati. 

Advertising  Agencies.— Only  in  recent  years  have  ef- 
forts been  made  to  increase  the  consumption  of  fruit  by 
means  of  advertising.  Fruit  growers  and  sellers  have 
been  accustomed  to  seeing  advertisements  of  all  manner 
of  things  but  never  thought  that  the  same  principles 
that  would  sell  postum  or  coca-cola  would  sell  fruit. 
The  fruit  jobbers  have  for  years  advertised  their  special 


244  MODERN   FHTIT   MARKETING 

brands  of  coffee,  tea,  spices,  etc.,  but  fruit  has  been  ne- 
glected. Individuals  like  J.  H.  Hale  have  made  an  envi- 
able reputation  by  advertising  and  various  trade-marks 
appear  from  time  to  time,  but  their  efforts  have  been 
feeble  with  no  permanent  results. 

In  1912  the  International  Apple  Shippers'  Associa- 
tion added  an  advertising  committee  to  its  list  and  in- 
structed it  to  investigate  the  possibilities  of  advertising 
the  apple  industry.  With  an  appropriation  from  the 
society  and  donations  from  individuals  and  organiza- 
tions, $900  was  available  for  the  initial  start.  It  was  at 
once  foreseen  that  with  an  apple  crop  averaging  about 
$100,000,000  annually  and  distributed  over  such  a  vast 
territory,  that  the  task  would  be  no  easy  one.  It  was 
also  foreseen  that  if  the  advertising  was  to  stimulate  con- 
sumption that  the  interests  of  the  consumers  would  have 
to  be  reached. 

How  to  do  this  and  maintain  funds  for  the  work  was 
a  big  problem.  The  first  efforts  were  directed  at  the 
retailers.  About  13,000  retailers  were  advised  that  if 
they  would  run  a  bargain  counter  of  apples,  the 
sales  would  greatly  increase.  Most  retailers  expect  to 
make  about  100  %  profit  on  the  fruit  they  sell.  The 
poster  given  out  by  the  association  explained  that  if  they 
would  reduce  the  price  so  as  to  make  only  the  legitimate 
10  or  15%  profit,  that  sales  would  increase  and  the  total 
profit  would  be  greater  for  each  day.  A  number  of  the 
retailers  saw  the  wisdom  of  this  and  tried  the  experiment 
with  very  satisfactory  results.  Many  reported  that  the 
sales  had  increased  from  5  to  50  times. 

Fruits  as  a  Food. — The  next  step  was  to  place  before 
the  consumer  such  literature  as  would  create  a  desire 


SPECIAL    FRUIT    ORGANIZATIONS  245 

for  the  fruit.  A  little  booklet  was  printed  entitled  "197 
Ways  to  Prepare  the  Apple/'  and  sent  into  the  homes 
of  the  consumers.  At  first  these  were  distributed  among 
the  families  of  the  larger  cities.  An  effort  is  now  being 
made  to  place  one  of  these  books  in  the  home  of  every 
family  in  the  United  States.  Nearly  100,000  copies  have 
already  been  sent  out. 

Some  of  the  fruit  exchanges  and  selling  organizations 
are  doing  the  same  thing  with  other  kinds  of  fruit.  The 
California  Fruit  Exchange  has  a  booklet  on  numerous 
ways  to  serve  oranges  and  lemons.  The  Hawaiian  Pine- 
apple Company  has  a  pamphlet  giving  100  ways  of  using 
the  pineapple.  Armour  &  Company  have  a  booklet 
giving  many  recipes  for  using  their  grape  juice.  And 
so  on,  all  with  the  idea  of  keeping  their  particular  goods 
fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  consumer.  And  results  have 
amply  justified  this  method  of  advertising.  And  what 
is  still  more  important  from  the  standpoint  of  the  sales- 
men is  the  fact  that  the  quantity  sold  is  increasing  from 
year  to  year. 

Apple  Advertisers  of  America.  —  Advertising  the 
apple  developed  so  rapidly  that  it  soon  outgrew  the  com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  International  Apple  Shippers' 
Association  and  a  special  organization  was  formed.  This 
took  shape  as  the  * '  Apple  Advertisers  of  America. ' '  The 
members  of  the  advertising  committee  became  officers  of 
the  organization  and  regional  vice-presidents  and  mem- 
bers of  an  advisory  board  were  appointed  representing 
every  important  apple  section  in  the  United  States. 
Then  following  the  incorporation  of  the  advertising  as- 
sociation appeared  an  official  organ  in  the  shape  of  a 
monthly  publication  known  as  the  Apple  World. 


246  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

This  was  to  foster  the  work  of  advertising  and  to  pub- 
lish articles  contributed  by  members  of  the  advisory 
board.  This  paper  has  now  appeared  more  or  less  irreg- 
ularly since  1914  and  has  done  considerable  good  in  aid- 
ing apple  advertising. 

The  Stamp  Plan. — To  effectively  continue  the  work  of 
advertising  revenues  had  to  be  provided.  To  accomplish 
this  the  stamp  plan  was  devised.  Neatly  lithographed 
stamps  were  secured  of  1-  and  2-cent  denomination. 
These  were  put  up  in  books  of  100  each.  The  1-cent 
stamp  book  sold  for  $1 ;  the  other  for  $2.  The  idea  of 
their  use  was  to  place  a  1-cent  stamp  on  each  box  of 
apples  sold  and  a  2-cent  stamp  on  each  barrel.  While 
the  stamps  in  no  wise  guaranteed  the  contents  of  the 
package  they  attracted  attention  by  indicating  that  the 
seller  belonged  to  the  Apple  Advertisers'  Association. 
About  $3,000,000  worth  of  the  stamps  were  first  issued 
and  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  trust  company  for  distribu- 
tion. In  this  way  funds  were  to  be  provided  to  help  along 
the  work  of  advertising. 

The  sale  of  stamps  was  to  furnish  the  revenues  to  carry 
on  an  extensive  advertising  campaign.  The  services  of 
experts  were  to  be  secured  and  definite  plans  marked  out. 
Various  kinds  of  advertising  literature  were  to  be  printed, 
calendars  devised,  advertising  signboards,  signs  for 
street-cars,  etc.,  were  soon  to  show  to  the  public  the  advan- 
tages to  health  and  happiness  by  eating  apples.  Still 
further,  trained  newspaper  men  were  to  be  employed  as 
press  agents.  In  the  language  of  the  manager  of  the 
work :  ' '  Articles  will  be  prepared  by  the  best  writers  of 
the  country  for  the  feature  section  of  the  Metropolitan 
Sunday  papers.  Health  and  beauty  articles  will  be  pre- 


SPECIAL    FRUIT    ORG ANIMATIONS  247 

pared  by  noted  doctors,  health  commissioners  and  others, 
to  be  published  in  the  big-  magazines.  Picture  slides  will 
be  thrown  on  the  canvas  while  reels  are  being  changed. 
Motion  plays  featuring  apple  cookery  will  be  prepared. 
Display  advertisements  of  American  apples,  with  mottoes 
like  'An  Apple  a  Day  Keeps  the  Doctor  Away'  will  be 
distributed  among  retailers  particularly."  In  fact,  just 
such  a  campaign  as  would  be  conducted  to  sell  corn  flakes 
or  postum,  will  be  inaugurated. 

All  of  these  efforts,  while  fundamentally  sound  in 
principle,  failed  hopelessly  in  so  far  as  material  results 
were  concerned,  because  the  producers  did  not  support 
the  movement.  The  stamps  were  not  sold,  hence  no  rev- 
enues were  available  to  carry  on  the  work. 

Some  of  the  fruit  exchanges  and  distributors  are  now 
endeavoring  to  reach  the  consumer  direct  through  spe- 
cial advertising.  One  plan  that  has  been  in  operation 
for  some  time  in  California  is  to  offer  premiums  for  the 
return  of  so  many  wrappers  of  oranges.  Another  plan 
used  by  a  cured  fruit  association  is  to  ship  by  parcel  post 
so  many  pounds  of  prunes  or  raisins  for  a  stated  sum. 
Display  advertisements  announcing  this  plan  appear  in 
almost  every  family  paper  or  magazine.  Another  plan 
now  in  use  by  the  Northwestern  Fruit  Exchange  is  the 
issue  of  a  little  booklet  advertising  their  brands  and  giv- 
ing colored  lithographs  of  the  best  apples  and  a  short 
description  of  their  best  uses  and  when  to  buy  them. 
Following  the  pictures  is  a  price-list  for  which  the 
various  grades  and  varieties  will  be  delivered  at  the 
consumers  door. 

Results  of  these  methods  of  advertising  have  already 
been  far-reaching,  and  1914  was  a  year  of  unprecedented 


248  MODERN    FIU'IT   MARKETING 

apple  crop.  The  yield  was  probably  never  before  reached 
in  the  apple  industry,  yet  the  movement  of  the  crop  was 
regular  and  without  confusion.  The  prices  were  not 
so  high  as  in  former  years,  still  sufficient  to  warrant  fair 
returns  for  the  money  invested.  Prices  ran  steady  and 
even,  and  the  distribution  was  uniform.  Intelligent  ad- 
vertising and  broadminded  business  methods  were  re- 
sponsible for  this  unusual  situation.  Accurate  statistics, 
even  prices,  uniform  packages  and  standard  grades  have 
inspired  confidence  in  the  buying  public,  and  advertising 
has  created  the  demand. 

Gathering  Statistics.— Reliable  figures  on  fruit  crops 
have  ever  been  hard  to  get.  This  has  been  due  in  part 
to  the  perishable  nature  of  the  product,  also  to  the  lack 
of  any  well-organized  effort  in  collecting  data.  Some- 
thing has  already  been  mentioned  of  the  efforts  of  the  In- 
ternational Apple  Shippers'  Association  in  gathering 
statistics  on  the  apple,  but  these  do  not  include  any  of 
the  other  fruits.  As  the  market  prices  depend  largely 
upon  the  quantity  of  the  fruit  harvested  it  is  highly 
desirable  to  get  an  accurate  forecast  of  the  conditions 
of  the  crop.  The  more  information  that  can  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  producers  and  distributors  of  the 
fruit  the  greater  the  opportunity  for  getting  equitable 
returns  for  the  labor  involved. 

Government  Reports. — For  years  the  United  States 
government  has  maintained  a  department  for  reporting 
crops.  This  has  been  under  the  auspices  of  the  Agri- 
cultural Department  and  includes  reports  on  all  the  im- 
portant agricultural  crops.  This  work  has  been  col- 
lected largely  through  the  Post  Office  Department  and 
through  the  efforts  of  special  field  agents.  Printed 


SPECIAL    FRUIT    ORGANIZATIONS  249 

blanks  containing  a  number  of  questions  and  places  for 
answers  are  sent  to  each  post  office  and  the  one  in  charge 
has  had  to  fill  them  out  and  return  to  the  office  of  crops. 
From  these  reports  monthly  bulletins  are  compiled  and 
sent  to  the  various  papers  where  they  are  printed  and 
sent  out  to  the  public.  Also  a  regular  mailing-  list  is 
furnished  with  these  bulletins.  These  reports  are  valu- 
able as  they  indicate  the  general  crop  conditions,  but 
they  are  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  make  a  working  basis 
for  handling  the  fruit  crop. 

Once  in  10  years  the  Government  takes  a  census  of 
the  country,  which  includes,  the  horticultural  products. 
These  serve  as  guides  for  the  general  trend  of  the  fruit 
business  but  give  nothing  much  to  help  the  marketing  sit- 
uation. The  system  of  tariffs  and  revenues  makes  it 
necessary  to  keep  accurate  records  of  the  imports  and 
exports  and  their  respective  value.  This  information  is 
desirable  and  of  value  as  an  after  consideration,  but  it 
serves  only  as  a  guide  and  gives  no  definite  advance 
information. 

A  number  of  the  larger  exchanges  have  their  statistical 
department  where  they  can  get  advance  information  from 
their  own  members.  "While  this  serves  their  own  business 
admirably  it  does  not  add  to  the  knowledge  of  the  public 
until  too  late  to  be  of  any  direct  benefit.  Such  ex- 
changes usually  hold  their  own  information  more  or  less 
of  a  secret  until  it  has  served  its  purpose. 

Market  Reports. — The  reports  of  the  prices  of  farm 
commodities  that  appear  regularly  in  the  daily  papers 
and  agricultural  journals  are  collected  in  various  ways. 
Very  few  of  the  large  daily  papers  have  an  expert  to 
cover  the  markets  and  collect  material  for  reports.  Some 


250  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

of  the  agricultural  papers  collect  data  from  the  local 
markets  but  usually  prefer  to  buy  the  information  from 
those  who  make  a  business  of  collecting  it. 

Board  Commodities. — The  produce  listed  by  the  vari- 
ous boards  of  trade  is  known  as  board  commodities.  These 
constitute  the  less  perishable  products  such  as :  Grain, 
foodstuffs,  potatoes,  butter,  cheese,  etc.,  but  in  no  cases 
fresh  fruit.  The  commodities  have  the  prices  fixed  every 
morning  by  the  board  of  trade  in  the  various  cities. 
The  representative  of  the  Associated  Press  in  each  of  the 
cities  get  these  prices  each  morning  after  they  have  been 
fixed  and  they  are  then  distributed  over  the  country  to 
the  daily  papers.  In  this  manner  most  of  the  large 
dailies  get  rather  accurate  information  on  all  board  com- 
modities but  nothing  covering  fruit  products. 

Fruit  Commodities. — Market  reports  for  the  fruit 
products  have  to  be  collected  from  day  to  day  as  best 
they  can.  This  information  can  only  be  had  from  those 
who  handle  the  goods.  And  not  all  produce  houses  are 
willing  to  furnish  this  free.  There  are  in  all  of  the 
larger  cities,  trade  or  produce  journals  which  have  their 
experts  to  cover  the  markets  and  get  the  sale  prices  of 
the  fruit.  This  is  done  in  several  ways.  The  agent  can 
visit  the  auctions  and  make  notes  of  the  sales.  They  can 
arrange  with  the  larger  commission  houses  for  daily 
reports.  They  may  also  cooperate  with  the  fruit  ex- 
changes or  distributors  to  get  the  desired  information. 
For  the  shipments  into  the  cities  the  freight  depart- 
ments of  the  railroads  are  available,  as  they  have  to  keep 
such  information  on  file ;  for  foreign  shipments,  steam- 
ship companies  furnish  the  information.  All  this  calls 
for  an  expert  knowledge  of  the  city  and  surrounding 


SPECIAL    FRUIT    ORGANIZATIONS  251 

conditions;  also  one  with  strong  enough  personality  to 
win  the  confidence  of  the  dealers,  as  there  is  always  in- 
formation that  the  market  expert  would  get  and  if  made 
public  would  be  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the 
produce  handlers. 

Prices  quoted  in  the  dailies  are  usually  wholesale. 
They  do  not  represent  what  the  producer  gets  nor  what 
the  consumer  pays,  but  a  general  medium  somewhere 
between.  The  commission  house  would  report  what  the 
fruit  sold  for.  The  producer  would  get  what  was  left 
after  freight,  commission,  cartage,  etc.,  was  deducted. 
The  jobber's  prices  would  represent  the  same,  as  they 
buy  most  of  their  products  on  an  f.  o.  b.  basis.  The 
auction  quotations  would  also  be  the  same,  less  freight 
and  commission  to  producer. 

To  the  consumer  the  profits  of  the  retailer  must  be 
added  to  the  sales  quotation.  This  is  never  less  than 
15%  and  usually  about  40%  and  not  infrequently  100%. 
Market  quotations  are  always  valuable  as  a  guide  to  the 
producer,  but  the  more  the  grower  can  know  of  their 
methods  of  collection  the  better  will  be  his  chances  of 
getting  what  his  fruit  is  worth.  Each  producer  must 
make  a  close  study  of  the  market  reports. 


CHAPTER  XII 

FRUIT  SHOWS 

Objects. — Fruit  shows  are  one  of  the  more  recent  de- 
velopments in  horticultural  progress.  Every  fruit-pro- 
ducing section  now  boasts  of  its  big  shows,  and  so  impor- 
tant have  they  become  that  they  must  be  considered  as 
an  essential  branch  of  the  fruit  industry.  The  objects 
to  be  obtained  by  such  exhibitions  may  be  classified  under 
three  heads:  (1)  To  advertise  some  fruit  or  fruit-pro- 
ducing section.  (2)  To  stimulate  an  interest  in  fruit 
growing.  (3)  To  disseminate  knowledge.  All  three  are 
worthy  objects  and  past  results  have  justified  the  claim 
that  fruit  shows  are  a  good  criterion  of  the  energy  and 
ability  of  the  people  giving  them. 

Fruit  exhibits  give  the  growers  a  chance  to  get  to- 
gether, display  their  products,  and  to  match  their  skill 
with  their  neighbors  in  the  production  of  fancy  fruit. 
This  stimulates  an  interest  in  the  business  and  creates  a 
desire  on  the  part  of  the  weak  or  unskilled  ones  to  grow 
better  fruit.  The  display  of  varieties,  the  kinds  of  packs 
and  the  style  of  packages  gives  the  growers  a  chance  to 
observe  and  make  use  of  those  suited  to  their  needs. 
Occasionally  programs  are  arranged  on  topics  of  interest 
along  horticultural  lines;  thus  knowledge  is  spread. 
Buyers  are  attracted  to  the  shows,  and  sales  are  often 
made  during  the  exhibition.  Newspapers  send  their  re- 
porters and,  if  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant,  con- 
siderable space  is  given  to  the  show.  Prospective  in- 

252 


FRUIT  SHOWS  253 

vestors  in  fruit  lands  take  such  occasions  to  visit  the 
place  and  investigate  its  importance  as  a  producing  sec- 
tion. 

How  Held  or  Managed. — The  methods  of  handling 
fruit  shows  are  as  numerous  as  the  varied  fruit-produc- 
ing sections.  The  larger  ones  are  held  under  the  auspices 
of  a  regular  fruit  show  organization.  The  National  Fruit 
Show  held  annually  at  Spokane,  Wash.,  is  an  example  of 
this  type.  It  represents  a  stock  company  and  is  incor- 
porated under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  Washington.  The 
admission  fees  and  revenues  from  the  various  concessions 
make  the  organization  self-supporting  or  even  dividend 
paying.  Different  fruit-growing  sections  often  hold  their 
own  annual  exhibit.  Such  are  supported  by  the  growers 
in  the  particular  section.  Where  such  sections  are  large 
and  the  business  well  developed  the  show  becomes  an  event 
of  state  or  national  importance.  Often  real  estate  or 
transportation  companies  get  up  exhibits  to  attract 
buyers  to  the  section,  to  help  sell  their  land  and  con- 
tribute to  the  support  of  the  railroad. 

Often  the  show  is  held  in  connection  with  some  exist- 
ing organization.  Probably  the  majority  of  the  smaller 
ones  are  managed  in  this  way.  State  and  county  fairs 
have  exceptionally  fine  displays  of  fruits  and  vegetables, 
and  such  represent  the  oldest  type  of  fruit  shows  in  the 
United  States.  Agricultural  and  horticultural  societies 
may  have  displays  of  fruit  in  connection  with  their 
annual  convention  or  their  important  meetings.  Porno- 
logical  societies,  fruit  growers'  conventions,  granges  and 
other  similar  organizations  often  foster  quite  extensive 
exhibits  on  special  occasions.  Probably  the  latest  devel- 
opments along  this  line  are  the  land  shows  held  in  the 


254  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

larger  cities.  At  such  times  the  products  of  the  land 
are  collected  together  from  large  areas  and  displayed 
for  the  benefit  of  the  public  In  fact,  fruit  shows  are 
becoming  so  important  and  so  numerous  that  if  one 
choses  he  could  get  a  liberal  education  on  fruit  growing 
by  attending  the  various  exhibits. 

The  time  that  most  fruit  shows  are  held  must  natur- 
ally be  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  so  there  will  be  ample 
material  for  exhibits.  In  some  instances  the  displays 
are  maintained  the  year  around.  Real  estate  companies, 
chambers  of  commerce,  boards  of  trade,  etc.,  often  main- 
tain permanent  exhibits.  In  such  cases  the  more  perish- 
able fruits  are  preserved  in  liquids  which  keep  them  for 
a  long  time  without  deteriorating.  So  skilled  have  their 
processers  become  that  the  fruit  can  be  kept  for  several 
years  without  the  loss  of  the  most  delicate  shades.  The 
Pacific  Coast  states  have  exceptionally  fine  collections 
of  these  processed  fruits.  For  example,  the  ' '  California 
Development  Board ' '  maintains  an  exhibit  in  San  Fran- 
cisco representing  every  county  in  the  state.  Visitors  at 
any  time  can  see  the  fruits  of  the  entire  state  without 
having  to  travel  over  the  fruit  sections. 

Exhibits. — Good  exhibits  are  essential  to  a  good  show 
and  not  always  easy  to  obtain.  Specimens  of  fruit  can 
best  be  selected  by  the  grower  or  handler  of  the  crop 
and  some  inducement  must  be  offered  to  create  a  lasting 
interest,  and  so  premiums  or  prizes  are  offered  to  attract 
fruit  for  exhibition.  In  sections  where  shows  are  held 
for  the  first  time  considerable  effort  must  be  put  forth 
on  the  part  of  the  management  to  have  the  exhibitors 
understand  just  what  is  wanted.  The  ideas  of  orchard- 
men differ  widely  on  such  subjects,  and  unless  they  un- 


FRUIT  SHOWS  255 

derstand  clearly  just  what  is  desired  unpleasant  feelings 
may  be  created  and  the  whole  purpose  of  the  show  will 
be  defeated. 

Premium  List. — The  list  of  premiums  is  always  de- 
cided upon  several  weeks  in  advance  of  the  time  of  the 
show.  It  is  printed,  giving  the  different  classes  for 
which  prizes  are  offered  and  the  amount  of  the  premium 


Fig.   124.— 7,000   BOXES   OF  APPLES   DISPLAYED  UNDER   A  TENT, 
WATERYILLE,  CAL. 

after  each  class.  If  the  show  is  a  large  one  the  prizes 
will  have  to  be  correspondingly  large  in  order  to  create 
sufficient  interest  to  get  good  competition.  In  many 
cases  premiums  as  high  as  $100  are  awarded  for  first  or 
sweepstake  prize. 

The  classes  into  which  the  fruit  is  divided  must  be 
clearly  defined.  There  may  be  as  few  as  10  or  as  many 
as  100,  depending  on  the  territory  covered  and  the  size 


256  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

of  the  exhibits.  For  each  class  there  are  two  arid  some- 
times three  prizes,  listed  as  first,  second  and  third.  If 
the  first  premium  was  $25,  the  second  would  be  $10  and 
the  third  $5.  Each  one  being  50%  or  less  of  the  preced- 
ing one.  The  most  important  class  heads  the  list  and 
the  rest  follow  in  their  order.  Where  boxes  are  the  chief 
package  used  they  are  placed  in  groups  of  5,  10,  25,  100, 
and  sometimes  500  or  a  carload. 

Each  different  group  then  becomes  a  separate  class  on 
the  premium  list.  Where  the  shows  are  small  and  both 
boxes  and  barrels  included,  10,  or  occasionally  25  would 
represent  the  largest  number  in  any  single  class.  Fre- 
quently single  box  premiums  are  offered.  In  all  classes 
representing  marketable  packages  the  premium  list  speci- 
fies the  commercial  pack  because  the  way  the  fruit  is 
packed  and  the  kind  of  package  is  considered  in  awarding 
the  premium.  The  idea  is  to  have  the  specifications  con- 
form as  near  as  possible  to  the  requirements  of  the  best 
sellers  on  the  general  market. 

Plate  exhibits,  where  perfection  of  the  fruit  alone  is 
the  chief  consideration,  may  constitute  a  number  of 
classes.  The  usual  plate  contains  five  apples  although 
plates  of  12  each  are  sometimes  used.  These  may  fall 
into  several  groups  of  single  plates  only,  or  in  groups 
of  5,  10  or  15  varieties  each.  Other  classes  would  be 
displays  from  organizations,  such  as  exchanges,  societies, 
granges,  counties,  etc.  These  types  are  usually  listed  in 
the  premium  book  as  the  best  single  display  contain- 
ing 5,  10  or  15  varieties  of  fruit. 

Another  class  is  what  is  usually  termed  feature  dis- 
plays. These  represent  certain  well-known  objects  of 
political  or  historical  interest,  built  up  out  of  fruit  or 


FRUIT  SHOWS  257 

fruit  products.  Such  give  an  opportunity  for  the  builder 
to  draw  on  his  ingenuity  or  imagination  to  construct 
something  that  will  be  attractive  and  appropriate.  The 
premium  list  may  also  include  the  numerous  fruit  by- 
products. Dried  fruits,  beverages,  vinegars,  jellies, 
canned  goods  of  all  kinds  may  be  represented  in  this 
class. 

Other  Information. — Each  class  with  its  numerous 
subdivisions  is  systematically  arranged  in  the  printed 
form  with  the  premium  following  each  one.  There  is 
also  complete  information  on  all  requirements  made  by 
the  management.  Directions  on  how  to  reserve  space  for 
displays,  the  rules  for  making  entries,  the  size  and  kinds 
of  packages  that  can  be  used,  are  included.  The  time 
limit  set  for  the  placing  of  exhibits,  how  the  premiums 
will  be  awarded,  and  any  varieties  of  fruit  that  are  to 
be  excluded  are  explained  in  the  preliminary  notice.  It 
is  advisable  also  to  state  who  the  judges  will  be  and  give 
the  scale  of  points  to  be  used  on  the  official  score  card. 
The  more  specific  and  full  the  information  can  be  the 
less  the  chance  for  dissatisfaction  among  exhibitors. 

Securing  Premiums. — The  money  to  pay  for  the 
premiums  is  arranged  for  before  the  premium  list  is  sent 
out.  This  is  provided  in  various  ways.  Where  the  show 
is  handled  by  a  business  organization,  admission  or  gate 
fees  will  usually  take  care  of  the  premiums.  Where  ad- 
mission is  free  and  the  work  is  purely  educational  other 
means  must  be  found.  Where  the  shows  are  held  in  large 
towns  or  cities  business  men  are  willing  to  subscribe 
under  most  conditions.  Boards  of  trade,  chambers  of 
commerce  and  even  the  city  in  which  the  show  is  held 
will  often  contribute.  City  officials,  railroad  companies, 


258  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

trolley  lines,  and  the  various  industrial  organizations 
may  contribute  cups  or  prizes  of  various  kinds.  Some- 
times individuals  will  offer  cash  prizes  for  a  single  box 
or  barrel  with  the  understanding  that  he  is  to  get  the 
package  that  wins  the  prize.  Such  represents  a  larger 
sum  than  the  probable  commercial  value  of  the  package. 
There  are  innumerable  ways  by  which  a  competent  man- 
agement can  provide  sufficient  funds  to-  cover  the 
awards.  Care  is  taken,  however,  that  the  requests  for 
funds  do  not  become  so  numerous  and  the  sums  so  large 
that  the  business  people  become  disgusted  and  refuse 
to  contribute. 

Selecting  Fruit  for  Exhibits. — Fruit  for  show  pur- 
poses can  best  be  selected  during  harvesting  time.  Extra- 
fine  specimens  for  plates  can  be  laid  to  one  side  during 
the  process  of  harvesting  and  given  special  attention  to 
keep  them  in  good  shape.  Fruit  for  boxes  or  barrels 
can  be  set  aside  and  given  extra  care  later.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  handle  fruit  for  show  purposes  with  every  pos- 
sible care.  The  bloom  ought  not  to  be  disturbed,  and  it 
is  unnecessary  to  state  that  no  bruises,  blemishes  or 
marks  of  any  kind  are  permitted.  If  gloves  could  be 
worn  in  handling  the  fruit  less  injury  would  result. 

Commercial  packs  must  conform  in  every  way  to  the 
requirements  of  the  market.  The  packages  are  standard 
and  extra  care  is  taken  to  make  them  neat  and  clean. 
The  grades  conform  to  the  laws  or  customs  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  the  show  is  held.  In  box-packs  the 
apples  are  all  wrapped  except  the  top  layer.  The  man- 
agement of  the  show  specifies  on  all  such  points.  If 
barrels  are  used  the  same  precautions  hold  true.  A 
dirty  or  careless  package  may  spoil  the  chances  for  a 


FRUIT  SHOWS  259 

prize.  The  fruit  may  be  either  packed  at  home  or 
shipped  to  the  show  and  packed  by  experts,  the  latter  is 
usually  the  better,  as  good  packs  may  be  disarranged  by 
rough  handling  in  shipping. 

The  fruit  selected  for  the  exhibit  is  best  placed  by 
itself  as  soon  as  picked  and  graded.  When  the  time  for 
the  show  arrives  it  is  re-graded  and  carefully  examined 
for  blemishes  of  all  kinds.  Scab  or  scale-marked  fruit 
is  rejected.  All  stems  should  be  intact,  and  no  limb 
bruises  or  blotches  show.  After  this  is  done,  the  owner 
or  packer  grades  for  size  and  color.  Each  package  then 
is  as  uniform  in  these  respects  as  possible.  Many  shows 
specify  what  the  standard  sizes  of  the  different  varieties 
is  to  be,  in  which  case  the  exhibitor  adheres  strictly  to 
the  rules.  Unduly  large  fruits  should  not  be  placed  in 
commercial  packs  for  that  which  is  discounted  on  the  gen- 
eral market  will  be  discounted  by  the  judges.  And  the 
market  does  not  care  for  oversized  specimens.  In  plate 
exhibits  uniformity  in  size  and  color  markings  are  looked 
out  for.  Fruit  may  vary  naturally  in  color  yet  uniform- 
ity in  each  separate  plate  is  necessary.  Overcolored  or 
undercolored  specimens  are  usually  discounted. 

When  the  selection  is  all  complete  the  packing  may 
begin.  Barrels  and  boxes  may  be  packed  before  send- 
ing. Most  judges  allow  for  the  ordinary  box  bruises, 
so  siich  will  stand  an  even  chance  with  those  packed 
after  reaching  the  show.  Long  distance  shipping  in 
barrels  for  exhibition  seldom  pays.  Boxes  may  be  placed 
in  straw  or  excelsior  in  barrels.  If  sent  to  the  exhibition 
and  then  packed,  about  15%  more  fruit  is  sent  than  is 
intended  to  be  used,  to  allow  for  bruises  or  damages  in 
shipping.  For  plate  specimens,  each  separate  fruit  is 


260 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


Fig.    125.— A   CARLOAD   EXHIBIT    AT    THE    NATIONAL   FRUIT 
SHOW,  SPOKANE,  WASH. 

wrapped  in  tissue  paper  and  carefully  packed  in  boxes 
for  shipment.  It  is  always  best  for  each  exhibitor  to 
place  his  own  fruit  at  the  show,  but  where  this  cannot 
be  done  the  management  always  provides  someone  to 
place  them  for  him. 

Arranging  Displays. — The  best  way  to  place  the  ex- 
hibits will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  show  and  on 
the  space  available.  Almost  every  possible  arrangement 
will  come  under  one  of  the  three  methods :  booths,  tables 
or  racks.  Booths  are  best  for  the  larger  displays  and  lend 
themselves  to  a  variety  of  conditions.  Organizations 
of  various  kinds,  local  exchanges,  granges,  real  estate 
companies  most  often  make  use  of  booths.  A  framework 
is  placed  around  the  outside  and  then  covered  with  bunt- 
ing or  some  cheap  material  with  the  proper  color  to  best 


FRUIT  SHOWS 


261 


show  off  the  display.  A  careful  study  of  the  color  scheme 
and  the  selection  of  just  the  right  shades  will  often  make 
the  difference  between  success  and  failure. 

Racks  are  best  used  for  box  exhibits,  and  tables  for 
plates  and  similar  displays.  The  position  of  both  is 
studied  with  reference  to  light.  The  effects  of  light  by 
day  and  gas  or  electric  lights  by  night  are  quite  differ- 
ent. Often  displays  lose  in  attractiveness  because  of  a 
too  glaring  light.  A  soft,  diffused  light  is  preferable 
to  insufficient  or  harsh  lights.  The  best  position  for 
racks  is  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  and  high 
enough  so  the  average  man  cannot  look  over  the  top. 
If  too  flat  or  too  straight  the  view  will  not  be  as  good, 
and  part  of  the  effectiveness  lost.  Tables  can  be  ar- 
ranged in  most  any  way  that  will  give  good  light  with 
ease  and  convenience  for  examination.  The  more  iso- 
lated each  class  can  be,  the  better  will  be  the  general 
effect.  If  plate  exhibits  can  be  set  off  in  a  corner  or  in 
a  room  by  themselves  better  results  can  be  had. 

Advertising. — All  shows  to  be  a  success  must  be  well 
advertised.  This  is  the  work  of  the  management,  and  if 


l-ig.    126.— A  NEW  ENGLAND   BOX  AND   BARREL  DISPLAY 


262 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


properly  done  calls  for  considerable  time  and  study. 
Several  methods  are  available  for  this  work,  such  as  the 
use  of  posters,  handbills,  street-signs,  paid  advertise- 
ments and  news  articles.  In  some  way  the  show  must 
be  kept  constantly  in  the  minds  of  the  public.  News- 
papers are  willing  to  print  everything  that  will  pass  as 
news.  If  the  articles  are  cleverly  written,  considerable 
space  can  be  had  which  amounts  to  free  advertising. 
When  the  meeting  is  called  to  arrange  for  the  show, 
notices  may  be  given  to  the  papers.  This  is  repeated 
when  the  premium  list  goes  out.  Press  notices  should 
be  furnished  from  time  to  time  on  different  organizations 
that  are  preparing  exhibits.  Properly  designed  hand- 
bills are  sent  out  from  one  to  two  weeks  previous  to  the 
opening. 

If  there  is  to  be  a  program  this  may  be  printed  sev- 


Fig.  127.— PHOTOGRAPHS  OF  ORCHARD  SCENES  HELP 
FRUIT  SHOWS 


FRUIT  SHOWS  263 

eral  times  in  the  papers.  During  the  last  four  or  five 
days  preceding  the  show,  press  comments  on  parts  of  the 
program  will  help.  One  or  two  speakers  of  state  or 
national  reputation  are  preferably  selected.  Then  their 
picture  with  a  few  comments  on  their  work  and  ability 
just  before  the  show  opens  will  attract  wide  attention. 
Such  work  is  written  by  the  management  and  furnished 
the  papers,  all  ready  for  publication.  When  the  open- 
ing day  comes,  large  street-signs  giving  directions  where 
to  go,  placed  near  railroads  or  public  places,  will  attract 
strangers  who  happen  to  be  in  the  town.  If  an  admission 
fee  is  to  be  collected  much  more  attention  will  need  to 
be  given  to  advertising. 

Side  Issues. — There  are  many  extras  that  may  prop- 
erly accompany  a  fruit  show.  Concessions  of  various 
kinds  are  sold  to  people  who  habitually  follow  such 
exhibits  as  a  means  of  livelihood.  Lunch  counters,  soft 
drinks  and  novelties  of  all  kinds  are  to  be  found  at  every 
large  show.  In  some  places  there  is  a  regular  midway 
with  all  of  its  attendant  rabble.  These  concessions  are 
regulated  by  the  management  and  contribute  consider- 
able money  toward  the  support  of  the  show.  Floor  space 
is  also  in  demand  by  companies  who  manufacture  ar- 
ticles used  in  horticultural  practice.  Spray  machinery, 
chemicals,  fruit  packages,  nursery  stock,  and  the  many 
orchard  tools  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  side  exhibits 
that  may  legitimately  accompany  a  fruit  show. 

Manufacturers  of  fruit  byproducts  can  profitably  make 
displays.  Canned  fruit,  preserves,  jellies,  and  beverages 
are  put  on  as  exhibits  for  the  purpose  of  advertising  the 
goods.  Where  there  is  a  special  women's  section  in  the 
show  there  is  no  end  of  articles  used  in  the  domestic 


264 


MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 


economy  of  the  home  that  might  not  be  displayed.  Some- 
times the  management,  desiring  to  make  more  money, 
handles  the  concessions  themselves.  Lunch  counters  or 
short  order  meals  constitute  their  chief  venture.  One 
national  fruit  show  had  a  mammoth  pie  machine  that 
would  turn  out  1,000  pies  an  hour.  These  were  sold  to 
the  crowd  at  a  good  profit.  Such  shows  have  from 
5,000  to  10,000  paid  admissions,  and  are  able  to  do 
things  on  a  large  scale. 

Feature  Exhibits. — A  display  of  this  kind  consists  of 
some  special  design  imitating  a  place,  a  building,  or 
some  well-known  feature  of  the  fruit  section.  They  are 
designed  in  such  a  way  that  a  number  of  the  different 


Fig.   128.— THE  PANAMA  CANAL  BUILT  OUT  OF  DRIED  APPLES. 
WATSONVILLE,  CAL. 


FRUIT  SHOWS 


Fig.   129.— AX  ATTRACTIVE  BOOTH  WITH  PAINTED  SCENIC 
BACKGROUND,  SPOKANE,  WASH. 

fruits  or  fruit  products  can  be  used  in  their  construction. 
Their  primary  object  is  to  advertise  the  fruit  with  a 
secondary  one  of  calling  attention  to  some  particular 
phase  of  place  or  state.  Sometimes  the  state  emblem 
could  be  used.  Real  estate  men  thus  advertise  their 
lands,  resorts,  their  hotels  or  casinos.  Such  features  may 
be  participated  in  by  school  children  or  by  boy's  and 


266 


MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 


girl's  clubs.  A  feature  design  representing  the  Panama 
Canal  was  built  by  high  school  children  and  was  designed 
to  be  topographically  correct  (Fig.  28).  It  took  the 
first  prize  on  feature  exhibits  of  $200. 

Feature  exhibits  attract  wide  attention,  and  when  well 
executed  are  good  advertisers  of  a  fruit  section.  News- 
papers and  magazines  are  always  glad  to  use  photographs 
of  the  features,  as  they  represent  news.  Such  displays 
are  carefully  sketched  on  paper  ahead  of  time  so  as  to 


Fig.    130.— FEATURE    DISPLAY.      NEW   BRUNSWICK,    CAN. 

get  the  right  proportions.  The  framework  is  then  built 
of  wood  or  wire  and  the  fruit  put  on  as  late  as  possible 
before  the  opening  day.  Good  features  call  for  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  time  and  money  but  they  are  repre- 
sentative of  the  highest  in  fruit  display  work.  Where 
used  for  the  first  time  the  efforts  are  usually  towards  the 
smaller  and  simpler  designs,  giving  opportunity  for  de- 
velopment in  succeeding  years, 


FRUIT  SHOWS 


267 


Judging  the  Fruit. — The  examining  of  the  fruit  and 
the  awarding  of  prizes  is  the  most  delicate  problem  in 
the  handling  of  fruit  shows.  Exhibitors  are  sensitive 
and  are  quick  to  take  exceptions  to  any  decision 
unfavorable  to  their  own  interests.  The  management 

must  be  alert  to  such     

difficulties  and  pro- 
vide competent 
judges  to  examine 
the  fruit.  Any  ques- 
tion of  doubt  must 
be  foreseen,  if  possi- 
ble, and  rules  gov- 
erning such  points 
incorporated  in  the 
premium  list.  Where 
such  are  omitted  the 
judges  are  instructed 
on  each  particular 
case  as  it  arises. 
After  one  or  two 
years  the  rough 
places  are  smoothed 
out  and  the  people 
become  satisfied  as 
they  become  more 
liberal  in  their  views. 
The  Judges.— The 
judges  are  usually 
men  with  more  or 
less  technical  train-  Fig.  i3i._A  FEATURE  DISPLAY 

ing,     and    are    rep  re-  National  fruit  show.     Spokane,  Wash. 


268  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

sentatives  of  agricultural  colleges,  government  service, 
or  some  fruit-handling  organization.  They,  ordinarily, 
are  men  of  wide  experience  and  of  much  traveling,  and 
familiar  with  a  great  variety  of  conditions.  Many  judges 
for  large  shows  are  men  of  prominence,  who  are  not 
accustomed  to  much  physical  work,  and  who  are  in  the 
habit  of  turning  over  details  to  clerks  or  subordinates. 
Often  the  work  must  be  done  in  the  presence  of  noisy 
crowds.  A  man's  judgment  may  be  keen  and  active  at 
the  beginning  of  the  work,  but  at  the  end  of  the  day 
becomes  fagged  from  pure  exhaustion. 

In  most  cases  judges  get  no  pay  except  sufficient  to 
cover  traveling  expenses,  considering  that  the  experience 
and  knowledge  gained  will  offset  the  loss  of  time.  Most 
shows  cannot  afford  salaried  judges,  yet  many  dollars  in 
prizes,  good  will  and  prestige  depends  upon  the  opinion 
of  the  ones  examining  the  fruit.  Exhibitors  are  often 
critical,  and  it  is  only  right  and  just  that  they  should 
know  how  their  fruit  scores  and  wherein  they  may  im- 
prove another  year.  Score  cards  are  best  left  with  the 
exhibitor  or  placed  on  file  to  be  reviewed  or  studied  over. 
Such  work  is  largely  educational,  and  were  it  not  for  the 
fact  that  the  various  educational  institutions  so  con- 
sidered it  and  allowed  their  instructors  to  go  on  with 
such  work  without  loss  of  time,  fruit  shows  would  find 
competent  judges  hard  to  get. 

Score  Card. — The  score  card  giving  the  scale  of  points 
on  which  the  judges  are  to  award  the  prizes  is  always 
prepared  ahead  of  time.  It  is  best  to  include  this  in- 
formation in  the  premium  list  so  the  exhibitors  can  place 
their  fruit  with  the  importance  of  the  different  points 
in  mind.  The  score  card  is  based  on  a  percentage  of 


FRUIT  SHOWS  269 

perfect  pack  or  fruit.  Either  100  or  1,000  points  may  be 
used,  the  latter  preferably.  Each  different  class  will 
probably  call  for  a  different  set  of  weights  for  each 
point.  Where  commercial  packs  are  specified  the  per- 
fect pack  is  considered  as  the  one  that  would  bring  the 
highest  price  on  the  market.  Each  particular  feature 
that  the  buyer  would  consider  is  weighed  separately, 
according  to  its  importance.  The  sum  total  of  these 
points  represents  the  ideal  or  100%  perfect. 

The  score  card  for  the  fruit,  not  associated  with  a 
market  question,  represents  more  the  ideal  in  the  minds 
of  the  judges  to  which  the  variety  is  supposed  to  con- 
form. Other  classes  may  need  to  have  special  score  cards 
prepared  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  occasion.  In  the  case 
of  feature  displays  the  judges  devise  some  means  of 
comparison  to  cover  the  particular  feature  under  con- 
sideration. There  are  many  different  kinds  of  score  cards 
in  common  use  in  the  different  fruit  sections  of  the 
United  States.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  important  points 
covered  are  the  same,  differing  only  in  the  relative 
weights  given  the  different  points.  Efforts  have  re- 
cently been  made  to  combine  these  into  a  universal 
score  card  for  all  conditions.  Through  the  efforts  of  the 
Society  of  Horticultural  Science  such  a  score  card  has 
appeared. 

Judging  the  Fruit. — With  this  very  elaborate  schedule 
to  go  by,  all  the  judges  have  to  do  is  to  examine  the 
package  and  see  how  near,  in  their  judgment,  it  con- 
forms to  the  standard.  While  this  appears  very  easy 
to  do,  it  is,  in  reality,  very  difficult.  Men  do  not  often 
think  alike,  hence  two  or  three  judges  are  better  than 
pne,  as  their  opinion  represents  an  average.  Where  there 


270  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

are  several  hundred  or  a  thousand  boxes  to  examine,  two 
or  three  days'  time  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  them 
with  the  painstaking  attention  to  details  necessary. 

The  details  of  examining  a  commercial  box  pack  is  not 
difficult  to  comprehend,  but  calls  for  careful  work  and 
an  acuteness  of  judgment,  which  is  altogether  too  often 
lacking.  Having  a  copy  of  the  official  score  card  and  a 
list  of  the  classes  of  exhibits,  the  judges  proceed  to  the 
racks  and  begin  examining  the  fruit.  Where  the  box 
entries  are  numerous  it  is  impractical  to  go  through 
every  box.  Of  the  50  box  entries,  10  are  usually  ex- 
amined ;  of  the  25,  five ;  of  the  5,  two,  and  of  the  single 
box  entries  it  is  customary  to  examine  but  half  of  the 
contents  of  each  box.  The  judges  work  together.  On  the 
single  box  exhibits  they  score  one  at  a  time,  finishing 
each  variety  before  commencing  on  the  next.  Of  the 
entries  of  five  or  more  each  judge  takes  a  box,  being 
careful  to  keep  the  same  relative  number  for  each  one. 
The  average  then  stands  for  the  final  score.  The  vari- 
ous entries  are  listed  by  number,  and  the  name  of  the 
exhibitor  kept  off  until  after  the  prizes  are  awarded. 


Fig.    132. — EXAMINING  THE  BULGE 


FRUIT  SHOWS 


271 


SCORE   CARD    FOR   SWEEPSTAKE   PRIZES 
Or   other    competitions   between    different   varieties    of 
packed  fruit. 


BOX 

Fruit 

Texture    and   flavor.  .  .  .  100 

Value   of   variety 100 

Size  and  form 100 

Color    120 

Uniformity    100 

Freedom  from  blemishes  130 


Total    

Package 

Material    30 

Marking    10 

Solidity   (Nailing,  cleats, 
etc.)     10 

Total    

Packing 

Bulge    or    swell 100 

Alignment    20 

Height  of  ends 60 

Compactness    80 

Attractiveness    and   style 
of  packing    . 40 

Total    . 


Points 


650 


BARREL 

Texture    and   flavor.  .  .  .  100 

Value   of  variety 100 

Size   and   form 100 

Color    100 

Uniformity    100 

Freedom  from  blemishes  150 


Points 


Total    

Heads    10 

Staves    10 

Hoops    10 

Nailing    20 

Marking     20 

Total    

Facing    80 

Tailing    50 

Pressing    70 

Packing     80 


650 


70 


300 


Total 


280 


1,000 


1,000 


FOR  BARRELS  AND  BOXES  OF  A  GIVEN  VARIETY 


BOX 

Fruit  Point* 

Texture    and   flavor....  100 

Size   and   form.  : 100 

Color    150 

Uniformity 150 

Freedom  from  blemishes  150 


Total    

Package 

Material      30 

Marking     10 

Solidity    (Nailing,   cleats, 
etc.)     10 


Total    

Packing 

Bulge  or  swell 100 

Alignment    20 

Height  of  ends 60 

Attractiveness    and    style 

of  packing    ".  .  40 

Compactness    80 


650 


BARREL, 

Texture    and   flavor.  .  .  .  100 

Size   and  form 100 

Color    150 

Uniformity     150 

Freedom  from  blemishes  150 

Total    

Staves    10 

Hoops     10 

Heads    10 

Nailing     20 

Marking    20 


Total    

Facing    80 

Tailing    50 

Pressing     70 

Racking    80 


Points 


650 


70 


Total 


300 
1,000 


Total 


280 
1,000 


272  MODERN   FRUIT    MARKETING 

SINGLE  PLATE   SCORE   CARDS   FOR   FRUIT   OF  A 
GIVEN  VARIETY 

APPLES  AND  PEARS  PEACHES  AND  CHERRIES 

Points  Points 

Form    15        Form    10 

Size    15        Size    20 

Color    20        Color     25 

Uniformity     20        Uniformity     20 

Freedom    from    blemish 30        Freedom    from    blemish 25 

Total    100  Total    100 

Quality  when  scored 25        Quality  when   scored 25 

PLUMS  QUINCES 

Points  Points 

Form    10  Form    15 

Size     25  Size    20 

Color 20  Color    15 

Uniformity     20  Uniformity     20 

Freedom  from  blemish 25  Freedom    from   blemish 30 

Total    100  Total    100 

Quality  when   scored 25 

GRAPES 

Points 

Form    of    bunch 10 

Size    of    bunch 15 

Size    of    berry 10 

Color     10 

Uniformity     10 

Freedom   from  blemish 20 

Quality 20 

Firmness    5 

Total     100 

COLLECTION  OF  FRUITS  WITH  SPECIFIED 
NUMBER  OF  PLATES 

Point* 

Value  of  varieties  for  purpose  stated 50 

Condition  of  fruit    (Average  of  individual  plate   score) 50 


Total 100 

LARGEST   AND    BEST    COLLECTION 

Point* 

Number  of  varieties .      33-1  3 

Value  of  varieties  for  purpose  stated 33  1-3 

Condition  of  fruit    (Average  of  individual  plate  score) 33  1-3 

Total    ,  100 


FRUIT  SHOWS 


273 


In  judging  a  commercial  box  pack  the  first  considera- 
tion is  usually  the  package.  The  box  is  looked  over 
critically.  Anything  that  might  detract  from  a  good  ap- 
pearance is  noted.  Soil  marks,  use  of  weathered  boards, 
bad  or  unsightly  knots,  carelessness  in  nailing  are 
summed  up,  and  each  one  is  marked  off  in  proportion  to 
its  value  on  the  official  score  card.  The  next  step  is  to 
study  the  way  the  fruit  is  placed  in  the  package.  The 
bulge  calls  for  100  points  and  is  the  most  important,  as 
upon  it  depends  the  ease  in  which  the  fruit  will  carry 
to  market.  This  bulge  needs  to  be  at  least  an  inch  above 
the  box  at  the  center  and  form  a  regular  curve  to  the 
ends.  If  the  apples  do  not  come  above  the  box,  all  is 
marked  off ;  if  only  half  enough,  50  points  are  taken  off, 
and  so  on.  If  one  side  is  higher  than  the  other,  or  the 
curve  is  not  regular  enough,  points  are  taken  off  to 
indicate  the  defect.  This  is  a  matter  of  judgment  for 
the  judges,  but  seldom  will  two  fail  to  agree  on  any  one 
point. 


Fig.   133.— JUDGING  COMPACTNESS 


274: 


MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 


Fig.   134.— TESTING  FOR  END   PLAY 


The  height  at  ends  comes  next.  The  last  row  of  apples 
at  the  end  of  the  perfect  box  projects  from  a  fourth  to 
three-eighths  inches  above  the  end,  and  a  strip  laid  011 
top  will  run  parallel  to  the  box.  If  these  run  too  low  or 
too  high  or  are  uneven  they  are  marked  off  accordingly. 
The  compactness  is  tested  by  placing  the  hands  on  the 
top  of  the  fruit  and  testing  the  give  under  pressure  and 
the  side  movement  (Fig.  133).  The  hands  are  then  run 
down  at  the  end  of  the  box  to  see  if  there  is  any  end 
play  (Fig.  134).  If  the  hands  can  be  forced  down  to 


FRUIT  SHOWS  275 

the  bottom  of  the  box  all  the  points  are  marked  off. 
This  denotes  a  loose  package,  which  will  be  ruined  in 
shipping  to  market. 

The  alignment  and  attractiveness  are  usually  consid- 
ered together.  The  rows  run  straight  and  true  in  both 
directions.  The  attractiveness  has  to  do  with  the  style 
of  the  pack,  the  arrangement  of  the  fruit  on  side  or  end 
to  give  the  neatest  appearance.  The  wrapping  papers 
are  looked  at,  the  way  they  are  put  on,  etc*  The  box 


Fig.   135.— EXAMINING  FOR  DISEASES,  INSECTS  OR  BRUISES 

liners  are  studied,  and  points  are  deducted  to  represent 
the  detraction  from  a  perfect  appearance.  Good  looks 
are  as  important  in  the  selling  of  fruit  as  good  clothes 
are  to  a  marriageable  daughter. 

When  the  packing  has  been  examined  sufficiently,  then 
the  judges  turn  their  attention  to  the  fruit  itself.  From 
a  half  to  a  third  of  the  apples  are  taken  out  of  the  box, 
the  wrappers  removed  and  each  apple  examined  for  in- 
sect injuries,  bruises,  fungus  marks,  scale,  etc.  (Fig. 


276  MODERN    FRUIT    MARKETING 

135).  For  each  blemish  noted  one  point  is  deducted 
from  the  150  points  allowed  for  this  purpose.  If  half 
of  the  box  is  examined  and  10  blemishes  discovered,  this 
would  be  multiplied  by  two  for  the  entire  box  and  the 
total,  or  20  points,  be  deducted.  Occasionally  the  rules 
of  the  show  are  to  exempt  marks  that  are  the  result  of 
lid  pressure  in  nailing  up  the  boxes  for  drayage  or  ship- 
ment. Manifestly  it  would  not  be  right  to  disqualify 
a  commercial  pack  for  the  so-called  ' '  box  bruises ' '  result- 


Fig.  136.— TESTING  FOR   UNIFORMITY 

ing  from  shipping,   because  no  pack  has  been   found 
which  will  entirely  eliminate  them. 

The  apples  which  have  been  unwrapped  are  piled  back 
in  the  box  and  studied  for  uniformity  (Fig.  136).  If 
more  than  one  size  is  found  they  are  scored  off  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  that  vary.  The  size  refers  to  the 
commercial  value  of  the  apples  exhibited.  Unduly  large 
specimens  are  discounted  on  the  general  market  just  the 
same  as  if  they  were  diseased.  On  the  other  hand,  apples 


FRUIT  SHOWS  277 

sufficiently  small  to  run  over  150  to  the  box  are  not 
wanted.  Therefore,  oversized  and  undersized  varieties 
are  scored  off  in  proportion  to  their  variation  of  the 
market  standard. 

The  color  of  the  fruit  must  be  uniform.  This  may 
vary  from  box  to  box  in  the  same  variety,  but  should  not 
vary  in  the  same  box.  Where  the  top  layer  is  not 
wrapped,  highly  colored  specimens  are  all  turned  with 
the  blush  in  the  same  relative  way.  A  variegated  color 
arrangement  often  materially  detracts  from  the  appear- 
ance. The  value  of  the  variety  is  a  comparatively  new 
requirement  and  is  usually  inserted  where  boxes  com- 
pete for  sweepstake  prizes.  This  is  to  prevent  undesir- 
able varieties  from  getting  first  place. 

Texture  and  flavor  is  the  one  doubtful  Jonah  to  judges. 
Obviously  they  could  not  sample  or  taste  apples  from 
1,000  to  2,000  packages.  Any  way,  there  is  no  accounting 
for  taste.  What  one  judge  may  like  another  one  would 
throw  out.  Besides,  apples  which  are  at  their  best  at 
widely  different  times  come  together  in  competition  at 
the  same  time,  giving  an  unfair  distinction.  Judges  usu- 
ally get  around  this  vexed  question  by  marking  all 
entries  perfect  in  texture  and  flavor,  unless  there  seems 
to  be  some  gross  departure  from  the  average  accepted 
types. 

Those  who  have  thus  far  followed  this  article  will  see 
that  the  task  of  a  fruit  judge  is  no  easy  one.  The  details 
are  exacting  and  each  point  must  be  carefully  considered. 
After  the  entries  have  all  been  examined  the  judges  then 
retire  and  total  up  the  scores.  Those  ranking  the  high- 
est are  taken  to  the  management  of  the  show  and  the 
number  is  then  affixed  to  the  name  of  the  exhibitor  and 


278  MODERN   FRUIT   MARKETING 

the  judges  for  the  first  time  know  the  names  of  the 
people  whose  fruit  they  have  been  scoring.  This,  to- 
gether with  the  fact  that  usually  the  judges  are  outside 
men  who  have  little  knowledge  or  acquaintance  with 
the  people  holding  the  show,  leaves  but  a  remote  possi- 
bility of  unfairness  to  the  exhibitors. 


INDEX 


Page 

Accessories  for  fruit  packing.      55 
Advantages    of    commission 

houses 170 

of  public  storages 115 

Ammonia  compression  system 

for  cold  storage 105 

condenser  for 106 

compressor  for 105 

expansion  coils  for 106 

Apple  advertisers  of  America  245 
advertising,   methods  of.    247 

.  the  stamp  plan  of 246 

box 50 

packing  crews 78,  79 

packing  in  boxes 63 

wrapping 71 

wra;->s 56 

Auction  companies  for  hand- 
ling fruit 209 

companies  in  England. .  .   216 


B 


Bags  used  for  harvesting  fruit    11 
Barrels  and  boxes   compared 

as  to  cost 81 

and  boxes  in  the  orchard 

at  picking  time 15 

Barrel  Headers 63 

making 51 

making  outfit 51 

materials 51 

presses 63 

Baskets  used  in  fruit  harvest- 
ing       10 

Benefits  of  cooperation 199 

Boxing  apples 63 

Box  liners 63 

marking  machines 82,  84 

presses 76 

Brine  system  for  cold  storage  106 
Business  credit  of  jobbing 

houses 235 


Page 

California  fruit  distributors.   223 
Capacity  of  cars  for  fruit .  . .   149 

Care  in  picking  fruit 9 

used  in  shipping  fruit  134 
Cellars  for  fruit  storage....  88 
Charges  for  storing  fruit.  . . .  115 

Cheek  pack  explained 71 

City  fruit  markets 155 

fruit  stands 221 

Commission  houses 167 

Commodities  handled  by  job- 
bing houses 234 

Commodity  rates  for  fruit. . .   136 
Construction  of  fruit  storage 

cellars 89,  90 

of  storage  houses 94 

Controlling  moisture  in  stor- 
age houses Ill,  112 

temperature    of    storage 

houses 93 

Conveniences  for  grading  fruit    32 
Cooling    solutions     for     cold 

storages     104 

Cooperation  defined 173 

Cooperative  fruit  grading  and 

packing 25 

fruit  selling 174 

organizations   174-202 

benefits  of 199 

central  office  of. ...   178 
collecting  informa- 
tion through 184 

definition   of 173 

director  of 184 

disadvantages  of .  .  .    201 
dispersing  informa- 
tion through 189 

district  associations 

of 178 

financial  aid  to  mem- 
bers of 191 

how  organized. .  .174-177 


279 


280 


INDEX 


Page 

Cooperative  organizations,  in- 
corporating of 181 

information  blank 

for  growers  in ...   186 
loaning  m  o  n  e  y  t  o         ( 

members  of 192 

local  associations  of  177 

management  of 179 

membership  of 183 

non-profit  sharing. .    175 

profit  sharing 175 

sub-departments  of.    192 

Cost  of  apple  packing 80 

picking  fruit 19 

storing  fruit 113 

Count  as  used  in  box  packs.  .      68 
Cultural  methods  affecting 

fruit  in  storage 121 


Dead-air   space  in  insulating 

cold  storages 99 

Diagonal  pack  for  boxed  apples    66 

Direct   expansion    system   for 

cold  storages 108 

Disadvantages  of  commission 

houses 170 

of  public  storages.  .  .116,  117 

Disposition    of    the    fruit    at 

picking  time 14 

Distance  from  market  affect-     . 
ing  the  harvesting   of 
fruit 1 

Dug-outs  for  fruit  storages .  89,  90 


Effects  of  freezing  on  fruit  in 

storage 123 

of  storage  on  fruit 119 

End  pack  explained 71 

Express    companies    handling 

fruit 135 


Facing    the    barrel    in  fruit 

packing 59 

Factors  influencing  demand.  .  162 

influencing  price 164 

influencing  supply 160 

Filling  the  apple  box 70 

Freezing  of  fruit 123 


Page 

Fruit  as  a  food 245 

changes  in  ripening 132 

commodities 250 

decay  in  storage 127 

distributors 223 

exchanges   174-202 

field  box 15 

for  exhibition 257 

from  orchard  to  packing- 
house      16 

grades 25 

grades  classified 28 

harvesting 1 

jobbers 232 

judging 267 

markets 152 

organizations 223 

package  requirements ....     40 

packages 40 

cheapness  of 41 

convenience  of 41 

durability  of 42 

lightness  of 4i 

sanitation  of 42 

packing  house '. 

packing  in  barrels 57-63 

packing  material 56 

packing  operations 57 

picked  with  stems  off.  .  .        8 
picked  with  stems  on ....        8 

scald  in  storage 125 

selling 167 

shows   252-278 

advertising  of 261 

arranging   displays 

for 260 

exhibits    for 254 

feature  displays  for.    264 
how  to  arrange  for.    253 
information    for   ex- 
hibits for 257 

management  of 253 

objects  of 252 

premium  list  for.  .  .   255 
securing   premiums 

for 257 

side  issues  for 263 

shrinkage  in  storage.  .  .  .    126 

sold  at  auctions 209 

stands  in  the  cities 221 

statistics 248 

storage 85 

transportation 134 


INDEX 


281 


Page 

Gathering  statistics  of  fruit.   248 

Gift  fruit  packages 40 

Good  box  packing  requirements    72 
Government  reports  on  fruit. .    248 

Grades  of  fruit  defined 25 

Grading  fruit 32 

fruit  by  machinery 34-36 

cost  of 39 

principles  involved   in .  .      35 
table 32 


Handling  fruit  for  pre-cooling  143 

fruit  in  shows 273-278 

fruit  through  cooperative 

warehouses 197 

fruit   with   care   in   har- 
vesting        9 

of  fruit  by  commission 

men 167 

of  fruit  for  storage 87 

package  material 49 

Harvesting  almonds 7 

apples 4 

cherries 5 

figs 5 

fruit  by  contract 18,  19 

fruit  by  day  labor 18,  19 

fruit  by  tree  or  package.18,   19 

grapes 7 

of  fruit 1-20 

pears 4 

persimmons 7 

prunes 7 

records 20 

the  more  perishable  fruits      4 

Heat  conducting  power  of  in- 
sulating materials 96 

Home  fruit  market 154 

House  for  packing  fruit 22 

How  fruit  is  judged  at  shows  273 
to  count  the  apples  in  a 
box 68 

Humidity  in  storage  nouses. .   110 


Ice-brine  system  of  refrigera- 
tion   101 

Ice  refrigeration 100 


Page 

Insulating  materials  applied  97 

materials  table : 97 

value   of  different  mate- 
rials   96 

Insulation  of  storage  houses  95 
International  Apple  Shippers' 

Association 239 

advertising  agencies  of.  .  243 

committees  of 241 

membership  in 239 

objects  of 239 

publications  of 243 

publicity  work  of 243 

statistical  work  of 242 


Jobbers  of  fruit 232 

Judges  for  fruit  shows 267 

Judging  fruit  shows 267 


Keeping  of  fruit  in  storage . .   119 
qualities  of  fruit  in  stor- 
age     119 

Kinds  of  fruit  packages 42-50 

of  fruit  storages 88 


Labeling  fruit  packages 82 

Labor  for  fruit  harvesting.  .  .      18 

Ladders  for  low-headed  trees .      14 

used  in  picking  fruit. .  .12-15 

used  in  the  West 14 

Laws  affecting  fruit  packages     46 
affecting  grades  of  fruit.28-30 

for  Canada 30 

for  Maine 29 

for  New  York 29 

for  United  States 29 

for  western  states 30 

Laws  relating  to  the  labeling 

of  fruit  packages 83 

Layer  as  used  in  box  packs.  .      67 
Lithographed  labels  for  pack- 
ages       84 

Loading  fruit  into  cars 147 

Local  cold  storage  houses.  ...     9i 


282 


INDEX 


M 


Page 


Making  apple  barrels 50-55 

apple  boxes 50 

Managing  pickers 18 

Market  reports  for  fruit 249 

Marketing  fruit 152 

fruit  by  cooperation ....    174 
Markets  for  fruit  discussed 

159-165 

Material  for  fruit  packages.  .      47 
Materials  for  insulating  stor- 
ages       95 

Maturity  of  fruit  affecting  its 

keeping  in  storage.  .  .  .    119 
of  fruit  at  harvesting  time       1 

Mechanical  fruit  graders 34 

refrigeration    100-105 

Mechanics  of  cold  storage.  .  .    100 
Methods    of    insulating    stor- 
age houses 97 

Motor  trucks  for  short  hauls  151 
Moving  fruit  to  markets.  .  .  .    144 
the  fruit  to  the  packing 
house   16 


N 


Nail  strippers 77 

Nailing  devices  for  boxes.  ...  76 

Names  of  box  packs 69 

National   League  of  Commis- 
sion merchants 237 

history  of 237 

purpose    of 238 

Non-profit    sharing    organiza- 
tions   175 

North  American  Fruit  Ex- 
change   230 

methods  of  selling 232 

organization  of 230 

North   Pacific    Fruit  Distrib- 
utors   224 

first  year's  result  of.  ...  227 

organization   of 224 

reasons  for  success  of .  .  228 

selling  -methods  of 225 


Objects  of  fruit  storage 85 

Ocean  freight  for  fruit 146 

Offset  pack  for  boxed  apples.  66 
Organizing    cooperative    e  x  - 

changes 175 


Page 

Package  laws 46 

material 47 

Packages  for  shipping  fruit. 43-50 
for  the  various  fruits.  .43-50 

of  standard  sizes 46 

Packing  apples  in  barrels.  ...      57 

facing  the  head 51) 

filling   in 60 

heading 02 

nailing  the  head  and 

hoops ."is 

nailing  up  after  filling.  .      62 
preparing  the  barrel ....      57 

racking  the  barrel 60 

use  of  follower 61 

Packing  fruit  in  boxes 63 

house  and  storage  cellar     23 
house  for  individual ....      23 

for   organization 24 

Pails  used  in  picking  fruit.  .  11 
Paper  used  in  fruit  packing.  56 
Parcel  post  for  shipping  fruit  138 

Physiology  of  fruit 131 

Picking  bags 11 

fruit  with  stems  on  or  off      8 

ladders 12 

lemons  and  olives 5 

receptacles 10 

Piling  apples  on  the  ground.      14 

Pipes  in  storage  rooms 107 

Points  on  judging  fruit 273 

Pre-cooling  fruit 139 

plants  for  fruit 140 

Preparing  the  box  for  apples.63-66 

the  fruit  for  market 22 

Primary   coils   in   storage 

houses 103 

Private  car  lines  for  shipping 

fruit 137 

Public   storages 92 

Push-carts  in  the  cities 222 


Removing  the  fruit  from  the 

tree 9 

Requirements   of  a  good  box 

pack 72 

for  alignment 76 

for  bulge 74 

for   compactness 75 

for  a  storage  house 89 

of  fruit  for  storage 86 

of  fruit  packages 40 


INDEX 


283 


Page 

Retailing  fruit. 216-220 

Ripening  pears  in  the  dark.        5 
Rots  affecting  fruit  in  storage  127 
Rules  for  packing  fruit  by  as- 
sociations       77 


Score  card  for  judging  fruit 

269-272 

Secondary  coils  for  storage.  .  103 
Seed  as  a  test  of  maturity  in 

fruit 3 

Selling  fruit 167 

fruit  at  home 154 

fruit  away  from  home.  .  .   155 
fruit    bill    of    lading   at- 
tached      206 

fruit  f.  o.  b 204 

fruit  in  bulk 40 

fruit  on  consignment ....    205 

fruit  on  track 204 

fruit  through  auctions.  .    209 
fruit  through  coopera- 
tive  organizations .  203-215 
fruit   through    express 

companies 216 

fruit  to  retailers 216 

Shipping  fruit  by  boat 150 

fruit   by   express 135 

fruit  by  parcel  post 138 

Shrinkage  of  fruit  in  storage  126 
Side  pack  for  fruit  explained  71 
Size  of  fruit  affecting  keeping 

qualities 120 

Sizing  board  for  fruit  grading  33 
Sorting  fruit  into  grades.  ...  32 
Special  fruit  organizations.  .  .  223 
Standard  grades  for  fruit.  .  .  26 

Starting  the  box  pack 65 

Stencils  for  labeling  packages  84 
Storage  effecting  the  ripening 

of  fruit 119.  132 

house    construction 94 

house  prices  for  fruit.  .  .   113 
of  fruit 85 


Page 

Storage  relation  to  tempera- 
ture and   decay 130 

Straight  pack  for  boxed  apples  66 
Style  of  packs  for  boxed  apples  66 
Sub-departments  of  exchanges  192 

advertising 195 

field    organization 195 

legal 194 

purchasing 196 

statistical 193 

traffic 193 

Successions  of  fruit  picking.  9 
Supply  and  demand  discussed  159 


Table  of  box  packs 70 

Temperature  of  storage  houses  93 

Terms  used  in  box  packing.  .  .  65 
Testing  fruit  markets  by  trial 

shipments 4 

Tier  as  used  in  box  packing. .  67 

Time  to  pick  fruit 1 

Tramp  labor  for  harvesting 

fruit 18 

Transportation  of  fruit 134 


Variation  of  fruit  in  different 

sections 3 

Varieties  of  fruit  for  storage  133 
Veneer  for  fruit  packages.  . .  48 
Ventilating  storage  houses .  . .  109 


w 


16 

197 

2 


Wagons  for  moving  fruit.  . .  . 
Warehouses  of  exchanges.  . . . 

When  to  pick  fruit 

Where  the  markets  for  fruit 

are 

Wrapping  apples  for  box  packs 
Wrappers  affecting  fruit  in 

storage. 123 


152 
71 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


2  8  '938 
DEC  II  1936 

OCT  1  6  '56 


JUN    98 


OCTITREC'O 
UCD  LIBRARY 

DUE  JUN  3  0  198i 
I  UN  2  2  1984 


LIBRARY,    BRANCH   OF   THE   COLLEGE   OF  AGRICULTURE 

5m-9,'35(s) 


J)1 


355202 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


